B cells are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system. Millions of B lymphocytes are generated in the bone marrow daily and exported to the periphery. The rapid and unceasing generation of new B cells occurs in a carefully regulated sequence of events. B-cell development from HSC (hematopoietic stem cell) to mature B cell takes 1 to 2 weeks.
The development of B-cells starts in the bone marrow with the asymmetric division of an HSC. It continues through progressively more differentiated progenitor stages to produce common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs), which can give rise to B or T cells.
The lymphoid progenitors that remain in the bone marrow become B cells. The developing B cell expresses a precisely calibrated sequence of cell-surface receptors and adhesion molecules on its cell surface as differentiation progresses.
Some of the signals these receptors receive induce the differentiation of the developing B cell. Others trigger its proliferation at particular development stages, yet others direct its movements within the bone marrow environment.
Collectively, these signals allow the differentiation of the CLP through the early B-cell stages to form the immature B cell, which leaves the marrow to complete its differentiation in the spleen. The primary function of mature B cells is to secrete antibodies that protect the host against pathogens.
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Maturation of B cell
The maturation of B cells is a tightly regulated process that ensures the development of a diverse B cell repertoire capable of recognizing a wide range of antigens while avoiding harmful self-reactivity. The entire process is essential for the adaptive immune system to respond to pathogens and provide long-term protection effectively.
The maturation of B cells involves a series of stages in the bone marrow and peripheral lymphoid organs. Here is an overview of the maturation process of B cells:
Origin in Bone Marrow
The origination of B cells is from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the bone marrow. Early B cell precursors, or pro-B cells, undergo immunoglobulin (Ig) gene rearrangement to generate a unique B cell receptor (BCR).
Pre-B Cell Stage
Pro-B cells differentiate into pre-B cells once the successful rearrangement of Ig heavy chain genes (IgH) occurs. Pre-B cells express a pre-BCR consisting of a surrogate light chain and a rearranged heavy chain, allowing further development.
Immature B Cell Stage
Successful rearrangement of Ig light chain genes (IgL) results in a complete BCR. Immature B cells express both IgM and IgD forms of the BCR. At this stage, the B cells undergo a selection process to ensure they do not react strongly to self-antigens. This process is known as adverse selection.
Migration to Secondary Lymphoid Organs
Mature naïve B cells leave the bone marrow and reach secondary lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes and the spleen. Here, the mature B cells interact with antigens for activation and differentiation.
Activation of B cell
B cell activation is an essential step in the humoral immune response, especially for producing antibodies and developing immunological memory. It generally occurs in secondary lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes and spleen.
The steps involved in the activation of B cells:
- Recognition of Antigen: B cell activation begins with recognizing specific antigens. Antigens are typically proteins or large molecules present on the surface of pathogens, such as bacteria or viruses.
- Antigen Binding to B Cell Receptor (BCR): The B cell receptor (BCR) is a membrane-bound antibody molecule on the surface of the B cell. The BCR recognizes and binds to specific antigens. Each B cell has a unique BCR that corresponds to a particular antigen.
- Internalization of Antigen: Once the BCR binds to the antigen, the antigen-BCR complex is internalized into the B cell through endocytosis.
- Antigen Presentation: The internalized antigen is processed within the B cell, and fragments of the antigen are presented on the cell surface. These fragments of antigens bind to major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) molecules. This complex is then displayed on the B cell surface.
- Interaction with Helper T Cells: B cells require signals from helper T cells to become fully activated. Helper T cells recognize the antigen-MHC II complex presented by B cells. Co-stimulatory molecules and cytokines facilitate the interaction between the B and helper T cells.
- Co-stimulation and Activation Signal: Co-stimulatory signals, such as those provided by molecules like CD40 on B cells interacting with CD40 ligands on activated T cells, are essential for B cell activation. The interaction with helper T cells and the receipt of co-stimulatory signals provide the necessary activation signals for the B cell.
- Clonal Expansion: Activated B cells undergo rapid clonal expansion, resulting in the proliferation of B cell clones specific to the encountered antigen.
Differentiation of B cell
B cell differentiation refers to the process by which activated B cells change their characteristics and functions to become specialized effectors or memory cells. After activation, B cells can differentiate into two primary effector cells: plasma and memory B cells. In summary, B cell differentiation involves transforming activated B cells into specialized effector cells (plasma cells) for immediate immune responses and long-lived memory B cells that confer immunological memory.
Plasma Cell Differentiation
After activation, some B cells undergo differentiation into plasma cells. Plasma cells are specialized for antibody production. They have an extensive endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus to support the synthesis and secretion of large quantities of antibodies. The produced antibodies are released into the bloodstream, lymph, or other tissues, where they can neutralize pathogens or mark them for destruction by other immune system components..
Memory B Cell Differentiation
Another subset of activated B cells differentiates into memory B cells. Memory B cells are long-lived cells that remain in the body for an extended period, providing immunological memory. Memory B cells “remember” the specific antigen that triggered their activation. In the event of a subsequent encounter with the same antigen, memory B cells can quickly provide a more rapid and robust immune response.
Immunoglobulin Class Switching
B cells initially express both IgM and IgD forms of the B cell receptor (BCR) on their surface. During differentiation, B cells may undergo class switching, changing the type of immunoglobulin they produce without changing their antigen specificity. This can produce antibodies of different isotypes, such as IgG, IgA, or IgE, each with distinct effector functions.
Affinity Maturation
B cells can undergo affinity maturation during an immune response, particularly in the germinal centers of secondary lymphoid organs. Affinity maturation involves selecting B cells with higher affinity BCRs through somatic hypermutation and the subsequent survival of B cells with improved antigen-binding capabilities.
Germinal Center Reaction
The germinal center reaction is critical in secondary lymphoid organs during B cell activation. Within germinal centers, B cells undergo rapid proliferation, somatic hypermutation, and selection, leading to the generation of high-affinity antibody-producing cells and memory B cells.
References
- LeBien, T. W., & Tedder, T. F. (2008). B lymphocytes: how they develop and function. Blood, 112(5), 1570–1580. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2008-02-078071
- Althwaiqeb SA, Bordoni B. Histology, B Cell Lymphocyte. [Updated 2023 May 29]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560905/
- Owen, J. A., Punt, J., & Stranford, S. A. (2013). Immunology (7th ed.). Macmillan Higher Education.
