Chemiluminescence Immunoassay (CLIA): Principle, Procedure, and Interpretation
How chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) works, how it differs from ELISA and RIA, and how to read the result, including the cutoff index and why CLIA is more sensitive.
A Guidebook on Clinical Science
Medical Microbiology & Laboratory Diagnosis
A comprehensive resource on pathogenic bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites — from culture media and staining to clinical laboratory diagnosis, and self-assessment with interactive MCQs.
Latest articles
View all →Nephelometry and Turbidimetry: Principle, Difference, and Applications
How nephelometry and turbidimetry measure antigen-antibody complexes by light, how the two differ (scattered vs. transmitted light), and why antigen excess causes a falsely low res...
Flow Cytometry: Principle, Procedure, and Interpretation
How flow cytometry counts and identifies cells using light scatter and fluorescence, how to read a dot plot and gating, and how the CD4 count is measured.
Automated Identification and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing
How automated systems identify bacteria and generate MICs, how they differ from manual methods, and when an automated result should be confirmed before it is reported.
Microsporum: Species, Identification, and the Rice Grain Test
The Microsporum species that matter in the lab: spindle-shaped thick-walled macroconidia, colony appearance of M. canis, M. gypseum, and M. audouinii, Wood's lamp fluorescence, and...
Epidermophyton floccosum: Identification and Microscopic Appearance
How to identify Epidermophyton floccosum: khaki-green powdery colony, club-shaped (beaver-tail) macroconidia in clusters, and the key feature that it produces macroconidia only and...
Hair Perforation Test: Principle, Procedure, and Interpretation
The in vitro hair perforation test for dermatophytes: principle, procedure, and how to read it. Which organisms are positive, and how it separates T. mentagrophytes from T. rubrum...
Strongyloides stercoralis: Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Laboratory Diagnosis
Why can Strongyloides stercoralis persist for decades and then turn deadly? Complete life cycle, the autoinfection and hyperinfection mechanism, clinical features, treatment with i...
Trichuris trichiura (Whipworm): Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Laboratory Diagnosis
Why does Trichuris trichiura cause rectal prolapse in children but no lung symptoms, unlike Ascaris and hookworm? Complete whipworm life cycle, pathogenesis, treatment, and the bar...
Enterobius vermicularis (Pinworm): Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Laboratory Diagnosis
Why does pinworm cause itching at night and why is the whole household treated at once? Complete Enterobius vermicularis life cycle, the perianal egg-laying and retroinfection that...
Stool Concentration Techniques in Parasitology: Types, Principle, and When to Use Each
An overview of stool concentration techniques used to detect intestinal parasites: what concentration means, the sedimentation and flotation methods, how each works, and how to cho...
Cryptosporidium: Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Laboratory Diagnosis
Why does routine stool microscopy miss Cryptosporidium, and why is it so dangerous in HIV/AIDS? Complete Cryptosporidium parvum and hominis life cycle, the autoinfection mechanism,...
Fluoroquinolones: Mode of Action and Mechanism of Resistance
How fluoroquinolones work: inhibiting DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, members like ciprofloxacin, resistance by QRDR mutations, uses, and tendon warnings.
Bacteriocins and Bacterial Antagonism: What They Are, How They Kill, and Why They Matter
What a bacteriocin is, how it differs from an antibiotic and a bacterial toxin, why bacteria make them (bacterial antagonism), how they kill target cells, and why bacteriocins like...