Activation of B cells requires two signals. Depending on the nature of the antigen, B-cell activation proceeds by two different routes, one dependent on helper T cells (TH cells), the other not. In the case […]
Immunity is defined as the resistance offered by the host against microorganism(s) or any other foreign substance(s). Immunity can be broadly classified into two types: Innate Immunity-present right from the birth Acquired/Adaptive Immunity- acquired during […]
The initial encounter of a naïve immune-competent lymphocyte with an antigen induces a primary immune response; a later contact of the host with the same antigen will induce a more rapid and heightened secondary immune […]
The advent of Electron Microscopy in 1932 open the door to visualize small subcellular structure and viruses which were beyond the scope of Light microscopy which can’t resolve objects separated by less than 0.2μm. Facts: […]
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a tightly linked cluster of genes present in every mammalian species. The MHC is referred to as the HLA complex in humans and the H-2 complex in mice. Roles: Development of […]
Bacillary dysentery also known as shigellosis is a bacterial disease caused by a group of bacteria called Shigella spp. Other bacterial cause of dysentery are, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Enteroinvasive E.coli (EIEC), Enterohemrorrhagic E.coli (EHEC), Campylobacter spps, and […]
Taeniasis is the parasitic infection of humans caused by adult tapeworm species; i.e. Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), Taenia solium (pork tapeworm) or Taenia asiatica (Asian tapeworm). T. solium and T. saginata have a worldwide distribution but incidence is higher in developing […]
Staphylococcus and Micrococcus both are Gram positive cocci (GPC). Both of these cocci are non-motile, non-sporing and Catalase Positive. Both of these organisms are normal flora of skin and mucous membranes of man and animals. Member […]
Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Neisseria meningitides are Gram negative diplococci (kidney bean-shaped) with flattened sides. They are characteristically found inside polymorphonuclear leucocytes. They are non-sporing, non-motile and oxidase positive. They have exacting growth requirements and do […]
All living cells can be classified as either prokaryotic or eukarytoic. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and other membrane enclosed structures, whereas eukaryotic cells have such structure. All prokaryotes are single-celled organism and all are […]
Staphylococcus and Streptococcus are two most common pathogenic gram positive cocci of medical importance. They share some of the important properties. Common characteristics shared by of these gram positive cocci are: Non motile, Non Sporing, […]
The cell wall of Gram negative bacteria is more complex than those of Gram positive bacteria. Gram negative bacteria contain an extra layer of cells called outer membrane or LPS layer which surrounds the thin […]
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