[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fB8ykN4g2LRmitY_UlCxawl1E0W9pOwDSSG7saJhgdsc":32,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":60},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"type":33,"data":34},"blog",{"slug":35,"title":36,"description":37,"seoTitle":38,"seoDescription":38,"author":39,"createdDate":40,"lastUpdatedDate":41,"draft":42,"category":43,"image":38,"body":44,"faq":45,"tags":58,"related":59},"virus","What Is a Virus? Structure, Genome Types, and Common Viral Diseases","A starting-point guide to virus structure, genome types, and the diseases they cause, with links to detailed diagnosis methods.",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2021-06-24","2026-07-01",false,"virology","A medical student encounters dozens of individual virus articles across this site, rabies, hepatitis B, dengue, HIV, each with its own structure, genome, and disease story. What ties all of them together, and why does it matter to learn the general pattern before diving into any one virus specifically?\n\nThe answer is that almost every clinically important fact about a specific virus traces back to a handful of general properties covered on this page: what kind of genome it carries (which predicts mutation rate and vaccine durability, covered in depth in the Baltimore classification article), whether it has an envelope (which predicts how it spreads and what disinfects it), and what shape and symmetry its capsid takes (which predicts how stable it is outside the body). Once you understand these general patterns, you stop memorizing each new virus from scratch and start recognizing which \"family\" of behavior it belongs to before you've even learned its name.\n\nThis page is the starting point for that pattern recognition, a properties-and-classification overview, not a full diagnostic manual. For the actual hands-on diagnostic methods, cytopathic effect recognition, neutralization testing, PCR-based detection, each has its own dedicated, in-depth article linked from the Lab Diagnosis section below.\n\nViruses are genetic elements that cannot replicate independently of a living host cell. Host cells provide energy and metabolic intermediates needed for the replication and synthesis of viral proteins. As viruses need suitable living cells to multiply, viruses are called **obligate intracellular parasites.**\n\nViruses exist in either extracellular or intracellular forms. The extracellular form of a virus is called a virus particle or virion, which is a microscopic particle-containing nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. Virion is metabolically inert and cannot generate energy or carry out biosynthesis. Virus particle facilitates the transmission of the virus from one host cell to another.\n\n> The entire virus, including nucleic acid, capsid, envelope, and glycoprotein spikes, is called the virion, or a virus particle.\n\nOnce a virus enters a new host cell, its intracellular state begins, and the virus starts replication. Using host cells’ structural and metabolic components, the virus forms new copies of virus genomes, parts of virus coat, and does assembly of new virions. Eventually, progeny viruses leave the host cell either by budding or the lysis of the host cell.\n\n## Size and Shape of Viruses\n\nVirions come in many sizes and shapes. Most viruses are smaller than prokaryotic cells, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.3 μm (20–300 nm). Because of this small size, viruses can pass through bacterial filters and can not be visualized by a light microscope.\n\n> Viruses are extremely small, so the common unit of measure for viruses is the nanometer, which is one-thousandth of a micrometer.\n\n![ - Viruses and cell size comparison (source)](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fviruses-and-cell-size-comparison.jpg)Figure: Viruses and cell size comparison (source)\n\n1. Smallpox virus, one of the largest viruses, is about 200 nm in diameter (about the size of the smallest cells of Bacteria).\n2. Poliovirus, one of the smallest viruses, is only 28 nm in diameter (about the size of a ribosome).\n\nMost animal viruses are roughly spherical with some exceptions.\n\n- Rabies virus: Bullet shaped\n- Ebola virus: Filamentous shaped\n- Poxvirus: Brick shaped\n- Adenovirus: Space vehicle shaped\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Shape often predicts function, not just appearance.** Helical symmetry (rod-shaped, like rabies, measles, influenza) tends to show up in enveloped RNA viruses where flexibility matters for budding through a host membrane. Icosahedral symmetry, the most efficient way to pack identical subunits into a closed shell, is the default for viruses that need a rigid, stable, protective container, which is why most viruses, including many that have to survive outside cells for a while, are built this way. Complex symmetry (smallpox, bacteriophages) shows up where the virus needs to do something mechanically unusual, like inject DNA through a bacterial cell wall, a simple icosahedron or helix doesn't have the right shape for that job.\n\n**Envelope or no envelope is a transmission-strategy fork in the road, not a random feature.** An envelope makes a virus fragile outside the body (sensitive to ether, chloroform, drying, heat) but lets it bud out of a cell relatively gently, often without killing it immediately. A naked (non-enveloped) virus is tougher, better suited to surviving outside the body (water, surfaces, the gut), but it usually has to lyse the host cell to get out, since it has no membrane to bud through. This single trade-off explains a huge amount of clinical microbiology: enveloped viruses spread mainly via close contact, blood, or respiratory droplets and don't survive well on surfaces; naked viruses (like hepatitis A, poliovirus, rotavirus) are the ones associated with fecal-oral spread and outbreak-causing environmental persistence.\n\n**Genome type predicts almost everything else.** This is covered in full mechanistic depth in the Baltimore classification article, but the short version worth anchoring here: RNA genomes generally mutate faster (no proofreading), DNA genomes are generally more stable, and only specific genome types (retroviruses, hepadnaviruses) require reverse transcriptase, which is exactly why that one drug class only works against that specific subset of viruses.\n\n## Key Exam Facts Table\n\n| Property | What it predicts |\n| --- | --- |\n| Helical symmetry | Often enveloped, flexible budding viruses (TMV, measles, influenza, rabies) |\n| Icosahedral symmetry | Stable, efficient packing; most viruses, including many naked viruses (poliovirus, adenovirus) |\n| Complex symmetry | Unusual structural\u002Fmechanical needs (smallpox, bacteriophages) |\n| Enveloped | Fragile outside host, sensitive to lipid solvents\u002Fheat\u002Fdrying; typically spreads via close contact, blood, droplets |\n| Naked (non-enveloped) | Resistant to lipid solvents, survives well outside host; typically spreads via fecal-oral route, fomites |\n| dsDNA genome | Generally more stable, lower mutation rate, often uses host DNA polymerase |\n| ssRNA\u002FdsRNA genome | Generally faster mutation rate (no proofreading by viral RNA polymerase) |\n| Retrovirus\u002FHepadnavirus genome | Requires reverse transcriptase; only these are vulnerable to RT inhibitor drugs |\n| Smallest viral genomes | Fewer than 5 genes in some viruses |\n| Largest viral genome | Mimivirus, 1.18 Mbp dsDNA, larger than some cellular genomes |\n\n## Viral Structure\n\nThe structures of virions are quite diverse, varying widely in size, shape, and chemical composition.\n\n### Nucleocapsid\n\nViruses are composed of a nucleic acid genome surrounded by a protein shell called a capsid. Together the genome and capsid are referred to as the **nucleocapsid.**\n\nThis protein coat is composed of a number of individual protein molecules called **capsomers.** A few viruses have only a single kind of protein in their capsid, but most viruses have several distinct proteins. Capsomers are arranged in a precise and highly repetitive pattern around the nucleic acid. The capsomere is the smallest morphological unit seen with the [electron microscope](\u002Felectron-microscope-principle-types-applications\u002F).\n\nA single virion can have a large number of capsomeres. The information for proper folding and assembly of the proteins into capsomeres is typically contained within the structure of the proteins themselves; hence, the overall process of virion assembly is called self-assembly. The virus nucleocapsid is the complete complex of nucleic acid and protein packaged in the virion.\n\n![Enveloped and nonenveloped virus - Enveloped and nonenveloped virions(Modified from Murray PR, Drew WL, Kobayashi GS, et al, editors: Medical microbiology, St Louis, 1990, Mosby.)](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fenveloped-and-nonenveloped-virions.jpg)Figure: Enveloped and nonenveloped virions (Modified from Murray PR, Drew WL, Kobayashi GS, et al, editors: Medical microbiology, St Louis, 1990, Mosby.)\n\n#### Virus Symmetry\n\nThe nucleocapsids of viruses are constructed in highly symmetric ways. Three kinds of symmetry are recognized in viruses, **helical, icosahedron, and complex**.\n\n![Virus Symmetry](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FSymmetry-of-a-virus.png)Figure: Virus Symmetry\n\n1. **Helical symmetry:** Rod-shaped viruses have **helical symmetry**. Examples, tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), measles, mumps, influenza, rabies, etc.\n2. **Icosahedral symmetry**: The icosahedron pattern is the most efficient arrangement for subunits in a closed shell. Spherical viruses have **icosahedral symmetry**. It is a symmetric structure roughly spherical in shape and contains 20 faces (each an equilateral triangle). There are exactly 60 identical subunits on the surface of an icosahedron. **Most viruses are built with icosahedral symmetry**. For example, polioviruses, adenoviruses, etc.\n3. **Complex symmetry**: These are viruses with complex or uncertain symmetries. For example, smallpox virus has the most complex virion structure consisting of many different proteins and lipoproteins. [Bacteriophages](\u002Fbacteriophage-structure-replication-use\u002F) are the most complicated viruses in terms of structure as they contain **icosahedral heads and helical tails.**\n\n### Viral Genome\n\nAlthough viruses are acellular entities, they possess a genome that encodes information required for viral replication. Viral genomes are smaller than those of most cells. The largest known viral genome is Mimivirus, which consists of 1.18 Mbp of double-stranded DNA and is larger than some cellular genomes. Some viruses have genomes so small they contain fewer than five genes.\n\nViruses have DNA or RNA genomes (in contrast, all cells contain double-stranded DNA genomes). These can be classified according to whether the nucleic acid in the virion is DNA or RNA and further subdivided according to whether the nucleic acid is **single (ss) or double-stranded (ds),** linear, or circular.\n\nViruses are the only creatures with genetic material composed of single-stranded DNA and **double-stranded RNA.**\n\n1. Viruses having **double-stranded RNA** as their genome: viruses of the family **Reoviridae** (Rotavirus, Colorado tick fever virus) and Birnaviridae have double-stranded RNA as their genome.\n2. Viruses having **single-stranded DNA** as their genome: virus of the family Parvoviridae (Parvovirus B-19) possesses single-stranded DNA.\n3. RNA can exist in several pieces. **Influenza virus** and rotavirus have a segmented RNA genome\n4. Almost all viruses are haploid, i.e. they contain a single copy of the genome with a major exception of **retrovirus** family which is diploid (have two copies of their RNA genome).\n\n![ - Central dogma concept](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FCentral-Dogma.jpg)Figure: Central dogma concept\n\nMost viral genomes are linear but some viral genomes are circular. Viruses whose genomes consist of DNA follow the central **dogma of molecular biology** but RNA viruses are exceptions to this rule. Regardless of the genome structure, all viruses must synthesize messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated by the host cells’ translational machinery (ribosomes).\n\n### Virus Envelope\n\nSome viruses are naked *(non-enveloped viruses are called naked)*, whereas others possess **lipid-containing layers** around the nucleocapsid called an **envelope.**\n\nEnveloped viruses contain a membrane surrounding the nucleocapsid. The viral envelope consists of a lipid bilayer, derived from the membranes of the host cell. Embedded in it are viral membrane proteins, usually, glycoproteins, coded by viral genes. **Glycoprotein spikes** extend from the surface of the virus and act as attachment projections or as enzymes (e.g., neuraminidases).\n\n![Naked and Enveloped virus](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fnaked-and-enveloped-virus.png)Figure: Naked and Enveloped virus\n\nAs the envelope of a virion makes initial contact with the host cells, it controls the specificity of virus infection. The virus-specific envelope proteins are critical for the attachment of the virion to the host cell during infection. Virus attaches to specific receptors on the host cell membrane via their glycoprotein spikes. The specificity of this interaction determines the host and cells within the host.\n\nVirions that have envelopes are sensitive to lipid solvents such as ether and chloroform. Their capacity to infect cells is inactivated by these solvents. Naked viruses are not affected by lipid solvents.\n\n### Enzymes in Virions\n\nAlthough most virions lack their own enzymes, some virions contain one or more virus-specific enzymes. Such enzymes play a role during the infection and replication processes. Some of the common viral enzymes and their roles are summarized in the table below.\n\n| Name of the enzyme | Virions carrying it | Functions |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Lysozyme | Bacteriophage | Bacteriophage use lysozyme to make a small hole in the bacterial cell wall, through which they inject their nucleic acid into the host cell cytoplasm.   Lysozyme produced during later stages of bacteriophage infection helps to lyse the bacterial cell wall and release progeny viruses. |\n| RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase) | Retroviruses | Reverse-transcriptase transcribes the viral RNA to form a DNA intermediate |\n| RNA-dependent RNA polymerase | RNA viruses | Synthesizes RNA from an RNA template, a function host cells cannot perform, which is why RNA viruses must carry this enzyme themselves |\n| Neuraminidases | Certain animal viruses | Cleave glycosidic bonds in glycoproteins and glycolipids of animal cell connective tissue and aid the release of virions from the host cells. |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"All viruses are roughly the same in how they leave a cell.\"** They're not, and this connects directly to the envelope distinction above. Enveloped viruses generally bud through the host membrane, a gentler exit that doesn't necessarily kill the cell outright. Naked viruses typically have to lyse the cell to escape, since they have no membrane to bud through, this is part of why naked viruses are more often associated with rapid, destructive cytopathic effects (see the CPE article for specific examples).\n\n**\"A virus without its own polymerase can't replicate at all.\"** Most viruses do need a polymerase to copy their genome and\u002For make mRNA, but where that enzyme comes from varies. Some viruses (many DNA viruses) borrow the host's own polymerase entirely. Others (RNA viruses, retroviruses) must carry their own polymerase, because host cells have no enzyme capable of using RNA as a template, which is exactly why RNA viruses and retroviruses package these specific enzymes inside the virion itself.\n\n**\"RNA polymerase\" and \"reverse transcriptase\" rows in an enzyme table can blur together if you don't separate what each one does.** RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (used by RNA viruses) makes RNA from an RNA template. RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, i.e. reverse transcriptase (used by retroviruses), makes DNA from an RNA template. Both solve the same underlying problem, host cells can't do either of these, but they produce different products and are used by different virus groups (see item 7 below for a clarity fix to the existing enzyme table).\n\n## Viral Diseases\n\nClinically important common viruses and diseases caused by them are listed in this table;\n\n| Name of the virus causing disease | Name of the disease or conditions |\n| --- | --- |\n| Herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 | Painful vesicles on the face and genitals |\n| Varicella-zoster virus | varicella (chickenpox)typically in children and, zoster  (shingles) |\n| Cytomegalovirus | Congenital malformations |\n| Epstein-Barr virus | Infectious mononucleosis |\n| Human herpesvirus 8 | Kaposi’s sarcoma |\n| Hepatitis B virus | Viral hepatitis |\n| Pox virus | Smallpox |\n| Adenovirus | Both URTI and LRTI (mostly, pharyngitis and pneumonia) |\n| Papillomaviruses | Papillomas on the skin and mucous membranes; some strains cause carcinoma of cervix. |\n| Parvovirus B19 | Slapped cheek syndrome |\n| Measles virus | Measles |\n| Mumps virus | Mumps |\n| Rubella virus | Rubella |\n| Rabies virus | Rabies (fatal encephalitis) |\n| Hepatitis C virus | Chronic hepatitis and predisposes to hepatic carcinoma |\n| Human T-cell Lymphotropic virus | T-cell leukemia and tropical spastic paraparesis |\n| Human Immunodeficiency virus | AIDS |\n| Poliovirus | Polio (aseptic meningitis and paralysis) |\n| Rhinoviruses | Common cold |\n| Rotaviruses | Gastroenteritis in young children |\n| Hepatitis A virus | Hepatitis |\n| Noroviruses | Gastroenteritis especially in adults |\n| Hepatitis E virus | Hepatitis acquired by the fecal-oral route |\n\n## Lab Diagnosis of Viral Infections\n\nDiagnosing a viral infection generally relies on one or more of the following approaches, often combined for confirmation:\n\n- **Microscopy:** direct examination of clinical specimens can reveal characteristic inclusion bodies or multinucleated giant cells (for example, the Tzanck smear for herpesvirus-induced giant cells), or detect virus particles directly by electron microscopy.\n- **Cytopathic effect (CPE) in cell culture:** growing the virus in cell culture and observing characteristic cell damage patterns remains useful for provisional identification, especially where molecular testing isn't readily available. See the [dedicated CPE article](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fcytopathic-effect-cpe-viruses-examples\u002F) for the full range of patterns and their associated viruses.\n- **Antigen detection:** tests such as ELISA can detect viral antigens directly in blood or biopsy material, for example, HBsAg for hepatitis B or p24 antigen for HIV.\n- **Serology (antibody detection):** a four-fold or greater rise in antibody titer between acute and convalescent serum samples, or the presence of IgM antibody, indicates current infection. See the [Hepatitis B serology interpretation article](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Finterpretation-of-hepatitis-b-serologic-test-results\u002F) for a detailed worked example of how this kind of panel is read.\n\n![Different Serological methods that can be used for viral infection diagnosis  - Different Serological methods that can be used for viral infection diagnosis](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FSerological-methods-300x157.png)Figure: Different Serological methods that can be used for viral infection diagnosis\n\n- **Neutralization testing:** confirms whether antibody present in serum can actually block viral infectivity, used both for diagnosis and for confirming protective immunity (such as rabies vaccination titers). See the [dedicated neutralization test article](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fneutralization-test-virus-toxins\u002F) for the full mechanism and applications.\n\n- **Nucleic acid detection (PCR):** the most sensitive and rapid method for many viral infections, amplifying and detecting specific viral gene sequences. See the [dedicated PCR article](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fpolymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-steps-types-applications\u002F) for the full method and its applications, including viral load monitoring in HIV infection.\n\n-\n\n**References and further readings**\n\n1. Levinson, W., Chin-Hong, P., Joyce, E. A., Nussbaum, J., & Schwartz, B. (2020). *Review of Medical Microbiology and Immunology* (15th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.\n2. Madigan, M. T., Bender, K. S., Buckley, D. H., Sattley, W. M., & Stahl, D. A. (2018). *Brock Biology of Microorganisms* (15th ed.). Pearson.\n3. Louten, J. (2016). Virus structure and classification. In *Essential Human Virology* (pp. 19–29). Academic Press. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002FB978-0-12-800947-5.00002-8>",[46,49,52,55],{"question":47,"answer":48},"Why do some viruses have an envelope and others don't?","It's a transmission trade-off. Enveloped viruses are fragile outside the body but can exit a cell gently by budding; naked (non-enveloped) viruses are tougher and survive well outside the body (useful for fecal-oral or environmental spread) but usually have to destroy the host cell to escape, since they have no membrane to bud through.",{"question":50,"answer":51},"Does virus shape (symmetry) actually matter clinically, or is it just classification trivia?","It matters. Helical symmetry tends to appear in flexible, enveloped RNA viruses; icosahedral symmetry is the most efficient way to build a stable, protective shell and is the default for most viruses; complex symmetry shows up where a virus needs an unusual structural feature, like a bacteriophage's tail for injecting DNA into a bacterium.",{"question":53,"answer":54},"Why do RNA viruses need to carry their own polymerase, but many DNA viruses don't?","Host cells have no enzyme capable of making RNA from an RNA template, so RNA viruses must carry their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase inside the virion. Many DNA viruses, by contrast, can simply borrow the host's existing DNA polymerase.",{"question":56,"answer":57},"What's the difference between detecting a virus by PCR versus by cytopathic effect (CPE)?","PCR detects the virus's genetic material directly and is faster and more specific. CPE relies on growing the virus in cell culture and recognizing characteristic patterns of cell damage, slower, but still useful in laboratories without reliable access to molecular testing.",[],[],[61,67,74,79,83,87,92,97,101,105],{"slug":62,"name":39,"description":63,"image":64,"body":65,"postCount":66},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",433,{"slug":68,"name":69,"description":70,"image":71,"body":72,"postCount":73},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",81,{"slug":75,"name":76,"description":77,"image":38,"body":38,"postCount":78},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor",32,{"slug":80,"name":81,"description":77,"image":38,"body":38,"postCount":82},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya",20,{"slug":84,"name":85,"description":77,"image":38,"body":38,"postCount":86},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi",6,{"slug":88,"name":89,"description":90,"image":38,"body":38,"postCount":91},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor",10,{"slug":93,"name":94,"description":95,"image":38,"body":38,"postCount":96},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",2,{"slug":98,"name":99,"description":77,"image":38,"body":38,"postCount":100},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal",18,{"slug":102,"name":103,"description":95,"image":38,"body":38,"postCount":104},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",1,{"slug":106,"name":107,"description":77,"image":38,"body":108,"postCount":109},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","**Nisha Rijal** is a microbiologist and quality assurance specialist. She served for nearly 12 years as a microbiologist at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), Nepal's national reference laboratory, and continues to work as a consultant microbiologist in international public health organization. ",51]