[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fAuBKlpaX2Jk48UIzwOVBr8rw8VMDDki7kcuiMSJ-aEo":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":298,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":361},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":74,"related":76,"comments":294},"types-of-swabs","Types of Swabs in Microbiology: Materials, Design, and Which Swab to Use","Compare cotton, calcium alginate, Dacron, rayon, and nylon flocked swabs, and see which swab and shaft to use for each specimen type, from throat and wound to pertussis and GC culture.",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2022-11-08","2026-07-23",false,"lab-equipment","A child with a two-week paroxysmal cough is swabbed for *Bordetella pertussis*. The site is right, the depth is right, the sample reaches the laboratory within the hour. The PCR comes back negative, and the child is treated as post-viral cough.\n\nThe swab was cotton-tipped on a wooden shaft, the kind sitting in every clinic drawer. Both materials leach residues that inhibit the polymerase. The DNA was on the swab; the reaction simply never ran.\n\nSwab choice is not a stationery decision. For several important organisms, the wrong collection device produces a false negative no matter how good the technique or the laboratory.\n\nSwabs are used to collect specimens for organism recovery or point-of-care testing. They are also, in most situations, the least good option available. Where tissue, pus, or a needle aspirate can be obtained, that sample is almost always superior: it carries more organisms, more material for multiple tests, and better anaerobe recovery. A swab is what you use when a better specimen cannot be obtained, or when the site genuinely suits swabbing, such as the throat, nasopharynx, or a surface lesion.\n\nGiven that starting disadvantage, swab choice matters more than it appears. The tip material determines whether organisms survive and whether the assay works at all. The shaft material determines whether the sample releases and whether inhibitors leach in. Over the past three decades both have changed considerably, and much of what is still stocked in clinic drawers reflects the old generation rather than the current one.\n\nSwabs today come in various materials, such as Dacron, nylon, polyurethane, rayon (polyester), and calcium alginate. The tips may be mesh, sponge, or flocked. The shafts are composed of wood, aluminum, or plastic.\n\n## History of Swab Use\n\nThe pathologist William Thomas Councilman introduced the use of cotton swabs for collecting diagnostic specimens in 1893, and the method was published in the *American Journal of Medical Science*. In the 100 years since Councilman’s original publication, few innovations have been made, such as changes in fiber type and design to collect, retain and elute the maximum amount of sample materials.\n\nCotton fibers containing inhibitory fatty acids were replaced with calcium alginate fibers. As they also contain inhibitory substances for PCR, they were later replaced with non-toxic synthetic fibers, such as rayon and polyester (Dacron). In 1992, Becton Dickinson patented non-toxic polyurethane foam-tipped swabs, and Copan patented flocked swabs in 2004.\n\n## Swab Tip Materials\n\nCommercially available swabs can differ in tip materials, such as **cotton, calcium alginate, Dacron,** **nylon, polyester, rayon, and polyurethane.**\n\n![Various Types of Sample Collections Swabs - Various Types of Sample Collections Swabs](\u002Fblogs\u002FSwab-types-used-in-the-study.webp)Figure: Various Types of Sample Collections Swabs\n\nDifferent tip materials have different chemicals and physical characteristics, which might influence the specimen collection and release. Swabs differ in absorption capacity and efficiency of releasing nucleic acids and proteins.\n\nTip material is the first decision, and for several organisms it decides the result before the specimen ever reaches the laboratory. Two of the historically common materials, cotton and calcium alginate, are now considered unsuitable for most diagnostic microbiology. The synthetic fibers that replaced them, Dacron (polyester), rayon, and nylon, are the current standard, with nylon flocked swabs the best performing of the group.\n\n### Cotton swabs\n\nFatty acids in cotton are toxic to *Neisseria gonorrhoeae* and *Bordetella pertussis*, so cotton swabs should never be used for culturing either organism.\n\nCotton has two separate problems. The fatty acids in the fiber are directly inhibitory to some fastidious organisms, and residues from the cotton interfere with PCR amplification. A cotton swab can therefore produce a false negative by two independent routes: the organism dies, or it survives but cannot be detected. This is why cotton swabs, despite being the cheapest and most available option in many settings, are not acceptable for pertussis, gonococcal culture, or molecular testing.\n\nOne residual use persists: a cotton swab moistened with phosphate-buffered saline is still used to collect material from the base of an ulcer, where the specimen goes directly to microscopy rather than to culture or amplification.\n\n### Calcium alginate swabs\n\nCalcium alginate was introduced to replace cotton and was widely used for nasopharyngeal collection for many years. It is now largely obsolete in diagnostic microbiology and should not be treated as a current option.\n\nThe problems are substantial. Calcium alginate fibers are toxic to tissue culture, inactivate certain viruses including herpes simplex virus, and interfere with both PCR and fluorescent antibody tests. They are more toxic to gonococci and mycoplasmas than even treated cotton. Because so much modern diagnosis is molecular, a material that inhibits PCR is disqualifying for routine use.\n\n**Current position: do not use calcium alginate swabs for viral culture, molecular assays, chlamydia, or gonococcal culture.** In practice this excludes nearly all routine diagnostic work. If calcium alginate swabs are still stocked in your setting, they are a legacy item, and older textbooks and protocols recommending them for nasopharyngeal collection should be read as out of date.\n\n### Dacron swabs\n\nThese contain non-toxic, hydrophilic synthetic fibers. Dacron swabs are the least toxic and most efficient at releasing antigens. Dacron swabs are also preferred swabs for molecular assays and viral specimens.\n\nDacron-tipped swabs on plastic shafts are acceptable for collecting most upper respiratory tract microorganisms, chlamydiae, and even genital Mycoplasmas.\n\n### Rayon swabs\n\nSterile rayon swabs with plastic shafts are suitable for collecting most upper respiratory tract microorganisms. Rayon-tipped swabs on a thin wire may also be used to collect specimens for isolation of mycoplasmas and chlamydiae.\n\n### Nylon flocked swabs\n\nNylon flocked swabs are the current standard in modern diagnostic microbiology and the best performing of the common materials for most applications.\n\nInstead of fiber wound around a core, short nylon strands are sprayed onto the applicator tip so they stand perpendicular to it, like the pile of a brush or velvet. There is no internal core to trap sample. Capillary action between the strands draws specimen into the layer, and because everything collected sits near the surface, it releases almost completely when the swab is placed in liquid medium.\n\nThe practical consequences are large: substantially more material collected, up to around 90 percent of it available for testing rather than roughly 10 percent, and enough volume from a single swab to run several tests from one collection. Recovery improves for both aerobes and anaerobes. Nylon is also non-inhibitory to PCR, so the same swab serves culture and molecular work.\n\nNylon flocked swabs are more expensive than rayon or Dacron, which is the main constraint on their use in resource-limited settings. Where budget forces a choice, they matter most for fastidious organisms, low-burden specimens, and any assay where sample volume limits sensitivity.\n\n### Polyurethane foam swabs\n\nFoam-tipped swabs, patented by Becton Dickinson in 1992, use an open-cell sponge structure rather than fibers. They collect and release well, are non-toxic and non-inhibitory, and perform particularly well for surface and environmental sampling. They are less common than flocked swabs in routine clinical use.\n\n### Polyester swabs\n\nPolyester is the broader material class that includes Dacron, and swabs sold as \"polyester\" are generally equivalent to Dacron in performance and suitability.\n\n## Which Swab to Use for Which Specimen\n\nThe table below collects the selection rules discussed above. Where a swab is marked as unsuitable, the reason is usually organism toxicity, assay inhibition, or both.\n\n| Specimen or purpose | Recommended swab | Shaft | Avoid | Why |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Throat \u002F oropharyngeal culture | Dacron, rayon, or nylon flocked | Plastic | Wooden shaft | Wood is toxic to several organisms and can splinter |\n| Nasopharyngeal, viral (influenza, RSV, SARS-CoV-2) | Nylon flocked or Dacron, flexible minitip | Flexible plastic | Cotton, calcium alginate, wood | Alginate inactivates viruses and inhibits PCR; wood injures and inhibits |\n| Nasopharyngeal for *Bordetella pertussis* | Nylon flocked or Dacron | Flexible plastic | **Cotton, calcium alginate** | Cotton fatty acids inhibit *Bordetella*; alginate inhibits PCR |\n| Gonococcal (*Neisseria gonorrhoeae*) culture | Dacron or nylon flocked, or direct plating | Plastic | **Cotton, calcium alginate** | Both are toxic to gonococci |\n| Chlamydia \u002F molecular STI testing | Dacron or nylon flocked | Plastic or wire minitip | Calcium alginate, wood | Alginate and wood inhibit amplification |\n| *Mycoplasma* and *Ureaplasma* | Dacron or rayon | Thin wire or plastic | Calcium alginate | Alginate is toxic to mycoplasmas |\n| Wound and surface lesion | Nylon flocked | Plastic | Cotton where possible | Flocked gives better uptake and release; aspirate or tissue is better still |\n| Anaerobic culture | Nylon flocked in liquid Amies (eSwab type) | Plastic | Dry swab | Dry swabs desiccate anaerobes; aspirate or tissue strongly preferred |\n| Any molecular or PCR assay | Nylon flocked or Dacron | Plastic | **Cotton, calcium alginate, wood** | All three carry PCR inhibitors |\n| Stool or rectal | Nylon flocked or rayon into Cary-Blair | Plastic | Dry swab | Requires transport medium for enteric pathogen survival |\n| Surface or environmental sampling | Nylon flocked or foam | Plastic | Cotton | Flocked and foam recover far more material |\n\nTwo rules cover most of the table. First, if the test is molecular, avoid cotton, calcium alginate, and wooden shafts, all of which inhibit amplification. Second, if the organism is fastidious (*Bordetella*, *Neisseria gonorrhoeae*, *Mycoplasma*), avoid cotton and calcium alginate, both of which are directly toxic.\n\n## Swab Designs\n\nThe lack of sufficient specimen volume is the major limitation of swab usage. To overcome this limitation, newer swab designs are used. Swab tip structure may be **flocked fiber, tightly wound, or knitted.**\n\nNewer swab designs, such as flocked swabs or sponges, are made to capture more specimens and, later, better release the sample into a transport medium or onto an agar plate.\n\nTraditional fiber swab specimens have an internal mattress core that can trap organisms and may be vortexed (mixed) in 0.5 to 1 mL of saline or broth for 10 to 20 seconds to dislodge material from fibers.\n\n![Fiber Swab and Flocked Swab - Fiber Swab and Flocked Swab](\u002Fblogs\u002FFiber-Swab-vs-Flocked-Swab.png)Figure: Fiber Swab and Flocked Swab\n\nCopan's eSwab is the most widely used liquid-based system built on this design: a nylon flocked swab supplied with 1 mL of liquid Amies in a screw-cap tube. Because the sample elutes into liquid rather than staying trapped in fibers, one collection can be aliquoted for culture, Gram stain, rapid antigen testing, and molecular assays. It supports aerobes, anaerobes, and fastidious organisms for up to 48 hours.\n\nFor the available formats, collection steps, and validated uses, see the dedicated [ESwab article](\u002Feswab-types-and-uses\u002F).\n\n## Fiber Swab vs. Flocked Nylon Swab\n\nThe synthetic tip of a flocked swab is brush-like and has more surface area than a cotton swab. This offers better specimen collection (collection of more material). Flocked swabs offer rapid and complete elution (release) of the sample into liquid media.\n\n| Features | Traditional Fiber Swab | Flocked Nylon Swab |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Swab design | Yards of fiber are wrapped around an applicator | Nylon fibers are applied to the applicator using a proprietary flocking process. |\n| Trapping of sample | The sample is trapped in swab fibers | The sample stays on the surface of the swab and completely elutes on contact with transport media. |\n| Tests from one sample | One swab for one test | Up to ten aliquots for multiple tests |\n| Sample available for testing | Less than 10% | Up to 90% |\n|  |  |  |\n\n## Shafts Used in Swabs\n\nSwab shafts are made up of aluminum or plastic, or wooden shafts. **Swabs with plastic shafts are recommended for collecting bacteria, viruses, and mycoplasmas from mucosal membranes**. The organisms are more easily removed from the plastic shafts than from other materials such as wooden shafts or wire.\n\nSwabs with cotton tips and wooden shafts are not recommended for virology or molecular tests. Wooden shafts are toxic to *Chlamydia trachomatis* and several viruses, and they inhibit amplification. Calcium alginate swabs on aluminum shafts were historically used for nasopharyngeal collection, but the alginate tip inhibits PCR and they should not be used for molecular work.\n\n## Performance of Different Swabs\n\nZasada and colleagues compared absorption capacity and release efficiency for nucleic acids and proteins across four common swabs: Dacron, rayon, polyurethane foam, and nylon flocked.\n\n![The volume of water absorbed by different types of swabs - The volume of water absorbed by different types of swabs](\u002Fblogs\u002FVolume-of-water-absorbed-by-different-types-of-swab.jpg)Figure: The volume of water absorbed by different types of swabs\n\nNylon flocked swabs absorbed the most sample and were the most efficient for DNA extraction, recovering more than three and a half times as much as rayon. For protein recovery, however, rayon and Dacron performed best.\n\n![ - Amount of DNA recovered from different collection swabs](\u002Fblogs\u002FAmount-of-DNA-Recovered-from-different-swabs.png)Figure: Amount of DNA recovered from different collection swabs\n\n![Amount of Protein Recovered from Different Types of Swabs - Amount of Protein Recovered from Different Types of Swabs](\u002Fblogs\u002FAmount-of-Protein-Recovered-from-Different-Swabs.png)Figure: Amount of Protein Recovered from Different Types of Swabs\n\n**What this means in practice:** for molecular testing, where DNA yield determines sensitivity, nylon flocked swabs have a real and measurable advantage. For antigen-based point-of-care tests, which depend on protein recovery, rayon and Dacron remain perfectly adequate and are cheaper. The best swab is therefore assay-dependent rather than absolute, which is worth remembering when a supplier presents flocked swabs as universally superior.\n\n## Swab and Transport Medium Are One Decision\n\nChoosing the swab is only half of it. A swab that reaches the laboratory dry has usually lost its fastidious organisms. The pairing that matters most:\n\n- **General bacteriology (throat, wound, ear, eye):** flocked or rayon swab into Amies medium, with or without charcoal. Charcoal helps for fastidious organisms.\n- **Enteric pathogens (stool, rectal):** swab into Cary-Blair medium, which maintains *Salmonella*, *Shigella*, *Vibrio*, and *Campylobacter*.\n- **Viral specimens:** Dacron or nylon flocked swab into viral transport medium (VTM) or universal transport medium. Bacterial transport media are not suitable for viruses.\n- **Multi-test workflows:** a liquid-based system such as eSwab, which combines a nylon flocked swab with 1 mL of liquid Amies, allows several tests from one collection.\n\nFor the composition and preparation of these media, see the transport media article and its individual entries for Amies and Cary-Blair.\n\n## **How to remember**\n\n**A swab is a compromise, not a specimen of choice.** Where tissue, pus, or an aspirate can be obtained, it beats a swab every time: more organisms, more volume, better anaerobe recovery. Reach for a swab when the site suits it or nothing better is available, not by default.\n\n**Two materials are retired: cotton and calcium alginate.** Both are toxic to fastidious organisms and both inhibit PCR. If either is still in your drawer, it is legacy stock. Everything current is synthetic: Dacron, rayon, or nylon.\n\n**Wood is for lollipops, not for laboratories.** Wooden shafts are toxic to *Chlamydia trachomatis* and several viruses, they inhibit amplification, and they can splinter in the nasopharynx. Plastic shafts for anything diagnostic.\n\n**Flocked means no core.** Traditional swabs wrap fiber around a core, so the sample gets buried and only about a tenth comes back out. Flocked swabs stand the fibers up like brush bristles with nothing in the middle, so the sample stays near the surface and about ninety percent releases. No core, no trap.\n\n**The two disqualifying questions.** Is the test molecular? Then avoid cotton, alginate, and wood. Is the organism fastidious? Then avoid cotton and alginate. Almost every entry in the selection table follows from those two questions.\n\n## Key exam facts in one table\n\n| Question a student actually gets asked | The answer, with the reasoning that makes it stick |\n| --- | --- |\n| Why are swabs considered poor specimens? | They collect little material, release only part of it, and dry out. Tissue, pus, or aspirates carry more organisms and support more tests, and are preferred wherever obtainable. |\n| Which swabs must never be used for *Bordetella pertussis*? | Cotton (fatty acids inhibit the organism) and calcium alginate (inhibits PCR). Use Dacron or nylon flocked on a flexible plastic shaft. |\n| Which swabs must never be used for gonococcal culture? | Cotton and calcium alginate. Both are toxic to *Neisseria gonorrhoeae*. |\n| Why avoid wooden shafts? | Toxic to *Chlamydia trachomatis* and several viruses, inhibitory to PCR, and a splinter risk in the nasopharynx. |\n| What is a flocked swab? | Short nylon fibers sprayed perpendicular to the applicator with no internal core, so sample stays near the surface and elutes almost completely. |\n| Flocked versus traditional fiber, in numbers | Traditional: about 10 percent of sample available, one test per swab. Flocked: about 90 percent available, up to ten aliquots. |\n| Best swab for molecular testing? | Nylon flocked. Highest absorption and more than 3.5 times the DNA extraction efficiency of rayon. |\n| Best swab for antigen point-of-care tests? | Rayon or Dacron, which give the best protein recovery and cost less. |\n| Which material is essentially obsolete? | Calcium alginate. Toxic to tissue culture, inactivates HSV, and inhibits PCR and fluorescent antibody tests. |\n| Swab plus medium for enteric pathogens? | Swab into Cary-Blair, which preserves *Salmonella*, *Shigella*, *Vibrio*, and *Campylobacter*. |\n| Swab plus medium for viral specimens? | Dacron or nylon flocked into viral or universal transport medium. Bacterial transport media are not suitable. |\n| What does the E in eSwab stand for? | Elute. It refers to the swab releasing sample into the 1 mL of liquid Amies supplied with it. |\n\n## **Where students get confused**\n\n**\"Calcium alginate is the standard nasopharyngeal swab.\"** This appears in older textbooks and is now wrong. Calcium alginate inactivates viruses, is toxic to gonococci and mycoplasmas, and inhibits PCR and fluorescent antibody tests. Current practice uses nylon flocked or Dacron on a flexible plastic shaft. If a source recommends alginate for nasopharyngeal collection, check its date.\n\n**\"A swab is a swab.\"** For several organisms the material decides the result. A cotton swab can produce a negative pertussis PCR on a genuinely positive child, by killing the organism, by inhibiting the assay, or both. Technique cannot rescue the wrong material.\n\n**\"Flocked swabs are better at collecting.\"** They are better at collecting *and* at releasing, and the release is the bigger gain. A traditional swab may collect adequately but trap the sample in its core, so only about a tenth reaches the test. Flocked swabs have no core.\n\n**\"Flocked is always the right answer.\"** Not for protein-based assays. Rayon and Dacron actually recover proteins better, so for antigen point-of-care testing they perform as well or better and cost less. Flocked wins clearly for nucleic acid work.\n\n**Cotton's two separate problems.** Students often remember one and not the other. Cotton fatty acids are *directly toxic* to some organisms, and cotton residues *inhibit PCR*. These are independent failure routes, which is why cotton is excluded from both fastidious culture and molecular work.\n\n**Swab material versus shaft material.** These are separate choices and are often tested separately. A Dacron tip on a wooden shaft is still unsuitable for molecular testing, because the wood is the problem.\n\n**References and further reading**\n\n1. Zasada AA, Zacharczuk K, Woźnica K, et al. The influence of a swab type on the results of point-of-care tests. AMB Express. 2020;10:46. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1186\u002Fs13568-020-00978-9>\n2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Best practices for healthcare professionals on the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for diagnosing pertussis. 2017. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdc.gov\u002Fpertussis\u002Fclinical\u002Fdiagnostic-testing\u002Fdiagnosis-pcr-bestpractices.html>\n3. Goldfarb DM, Slinger R, Tam RK, Barrowman N, Chan F. Assessment of flocked swabs for use in identification of streptococcal pharyngitis. J Clin Microbiol. 2009;47(9):3029-3030. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1128\u002FJCM.01163-09>\n4. Tille PM, editor. Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology. 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.\n5. Leber AL, editor. Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook. 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016.\n6. Rapid Microbiology. Flocked swabs proven superior in sample uptake and release. 2010. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.rapidmicrobiology.com\u002Fnews\u002Fflocked-swabs-proven-superior-in-sample-uptake-and-release>",[50,53,56,59,62,65,68,71],{"question":51,"answer":52},"Which swab should I use for a nasopharyngeal specimen?","A nylon flocked or Dacron swab on a flexible plastic shaft, ideally a minitip for nasopharyngeal use. Cotton, calcium alginate, and wooden shafts should all be avoided, because they either inhibit PCR, inactivate viruses, or risk injury.",{"question":54,"answer":55},"Why can't I use cotton swabs for microbiology?","Cotton fails in two independent ways. Fatty acids in the fiber are directly toxic to fastidious organisms such as Bordetella pertussis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and residues from cotton inhibit PCR amplification. So a cotton swab can give a false negative either by killing the organism or by blocking its detection.",{"question":57,"answer":58},"Are calcium alginate swabs still used?","They are largely obsolete in diagnostic microbiology. Calcium alginate is toxic to tissue culture, inactivates certain viruses including herpes simplex virus, is toxic to gonococci and mycoplasmas, and interferes with PCR and fluorescent antibody tests. Older textbooks recommending it for nasopharyngeal collection are out of date.",{"question":60,"answer":61},"What is a flocked swab and why is it better?","A flocked swab has short nylon fibers standing perpendicular to the applicator with no internal core, rather than fiber wound around a core. Sample stays near the surface and elutes almost completely into liquid medium. Around 90 percent of the collected sample becomes available for testing, compared with roughly 10 percent from a traditional fiber swab, and one collection can supply several tests.",{"question":63,"answer":64},"Is a flocked swab always the best choice?","No. For nucleic acid testing, nylon flocked swabs give clearly better DNA yield, more than three and a half times that of rayon. But for antigen-based point-of-care tests, which depend on protein recovery, rayon and Dacron actually perform best and cost less. The best swab depends on the assay.",{"question":66,"answer":67},"Why are wooden shafts not recommended?","Wood is toxic to several organisms including Chlamydia trachomatis and various viruses, it releases substances that inhibit PCR, and it can splinter, which is a genuine injury risk in nasopharyngeal collection. Plastic shafts are recommended for all diagnostic collection.",{"question":69,"answer":70},"Which transport medium goes with which swab?","For general bacteriology use Amies medium, with charcoal for fastidious organisms. For enteric pathogens use Cary-Blair. For viral specimens use viral or universal transport medium, since bacterial transport media are unsuitable for viruses. Liquid-based systems such as eSwab combine a flocked swab with liquid Amies for multi-test workflows.",{"question":72,"answer":73},"Is a swab as good as a tissue sample or aspirate?","No. Where tissue, pus, or a needle aspirate can be obtained, it is almost always the better specimen, because it carries more organisms, provides enough material for multiple tests, and gives better anaerobe recovery. Swabs are appropriate where the site suits them, such as the throat or nasopharynx, or where nothing better can be obtained.",[75],"specimen-collection-transport",[77,114,144,173,201,210,238,266],{"slug":78,"title":79,"description":80,"seoTitle":81,"seoDescription":42,"author":82,"createdDate":83,"lastUpdatedDate":84,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":85,"tags":113},"eswab-types-and-uses","Liquid-Based Swab Transport Systems (eSwab): Types, Uses, and Limitations","How liquid Amies transport systems like eSwab let one collection serve culture, Gram stain, and PCR, which formats exist, and the specimens they are not suitable for.","Liquid-Based Swab Transport Systems: How eSwab Works and When to Use It","Sushmita Baniya","2022-11-03","2026-08-25",[86,89,92,95,98,101,104,107,110],{"question":87,"answer":88},"What is eSwab and what does the E stand for?","eSwab is a liquid-based swab transport system consisting of a nylon flocked swab and 1 mL of liquid Amies medium in a sterile screw-cap tube. The E stands for elute, referring to the sample releasing off the swab into the liquid rather than remaining trapped in the fibers.",{"question":90,"answer":91},"Can I use eSwab for viral specimens such as influenza or SARS-CoV-2?","No. Liquid Amies is a bacterial maintenance medium and lacks the protein stabilizers and antimicrobials that viral transport medium provides. Viral specimens require viral transport medium or universal transport medium. The two systems look very similar, so check the medium stated on the label rather than relying on the appearance of the swab.",{"question":93,"answer":94},"How long do organisms survive in a liquid Amies system?","Up to 48 hours at either room temperature (20 to 25°C) or refrigerator temperature (4 to 8°C), validated against CLSI standard M40-A2. Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the exception and should be processed within 24 hours, since it is the most fragile of the commonly transported pathogens.",{"question":96,"answer":97},"How many tests can be run from one eSwab collection?","Because the specimen becomes a liquid suspension, it can be divided into aliquots, typically up to ten from the 1 mL supplied. One collection can therefore serve Gram stain, culture, rapid antigen testing, and molecular assays, whereas a dry swab is usually spent on the first test performed.",{"question":99,"answer":100},"Why is the device sterilized by gamma irradiation?","Sterilization during manufacture ensures the tube and swab arrive sterile and ready to use, and it destroys any residual nucleic acid in the device. That matters for molecular testing, because contaminating DNA in a collection device could produce a false positive. It happens before the swab ever meets a patient and has no effect on the specimen collected later.",{"question":102,"answer":103},"What is the difference between liquid Amies and gel Amies?","Gel Amies holds the specimen within the swab fibers, so it must be eluted at the bench and only part is recovered. Liquid Amies elutes the sample at the moment of collection, recovering far more of it and allowing multiple aliquots. Gel remains cheaper and adequate for a routine single-request bacterial swab; liquid earns its cost for multi-test requests, fastidious organisms, and molecular or automated workflows.",{"question":105,"answer":106},"Is a liquid-based swab as good as a tissue sample?","No. For anaerobic culture, deep wounds, and fungal infection, tissue or aspirated fluid remains the preferred specimen. Liquid-based systems substantially improve what a swab can deliver, but they do not make a swab equivalent to tissue.",{"question":108,"answer":109},"What is the breakpoint on the swab shaft?","A scored line that allows the shaft to be snapped cleanly once the swab is inside the tube, so the cap seals properly and the collector's fingers never enter the tube. Bend the shaft against the tube rim at the mark, holding the tube away from your face.",{"question":111,"answer":112},"Which eSwab format should I use for a pediatric or nasopharyngeal sample?","The single minitip format, which has a smaller flocked tip suited to narrow or small collection sites, pediatric patients, and urethral sampling. The single regular format suits routine adult collection from throat, wound, ear, eye, and genital sites.",[75],{"slug":115,"title":116,"description":117,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":118,"lastUpdatedDate":119,"draft":46,"category":120,"image":42,"faq":121,"tags":143},"rejection-criteria-for-microbiological-specimens","Specimen Collection and Transport in Microbiology: Principles, Guidelines, and Rejection Criteria","\u003Cp>The principles of collecting and transporting microbiology specimens, guidelines by specimen type, the transport rules that protect the sample, and the criteria a laboratory uses to reject a specimen, with links to detailed collection guides for each specimen.\u003C\u002Fp>","2021-05-04","2026-08-20","bacteriology",[122,125,128,131,134,137,140],{"question":123,"answer":124},"\u003Cp>Why is specimen collection considered the most important step in microbiology?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because it is the pre-analytical phase, the largest single source of laboratory error. A poorly collected specimen either misses the causative organism or grows a contaminant, so even a perfect test produces a wrong result. The quality of the specimen sets the ceiling on the quality of the result.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":126,"answer":127},"\u003Cp>Which microbiology specimens should never be refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Blood cultures, cerebrospinal fluid, sterile body fluids, genital specimens for \u003Cem>Neisseria gonorrhoeae\u003C\u002Fem>, and most fungal specimens are kept at room temperature, because cold kills these fastidious organisms. Urine and routine swabs, by contrast, are refrigerated if processing is delayed.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":129,"answer":130},"\u003Cp>What are the main reasons a laboratory rejects a specimen?\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Clerical errors (unlabeled or mislabeled specimens, missing request forms), inappropriate samples or containers (leaking containers, formalin-fixed specimens, Foley catheter tips), delay or wrong transport temperature, specimens inappropriate for the test (dry swabs, saliva instead of sputum, 24-hour pooled samples), inadequate quantity, and duplicate specimens on the same day.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":132,"answer":133},"\u003Cp>What is an irretrievable specimen?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A specimen that cannot practically be recollected, such as cerebrospinal fluid, surgical fluids and tissue, post-mortem specimens, and blood cultures. Rather than reject one of these for a minor flaw, the laboratory processes it and adds a note to the report describing the problem, so the clinician can interpret the result with appropriate caution.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":135,"answer":136},"\u003Cp>Why can't a mislabeled specimen be corrected over the phone?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because confirming identity by telephone reintroduces the identification error the rule exists to prevent. A mislabeled specimen is either recollected, or the label is corrected in person in the laboratory, so that patient identity is verified directly.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":138,"answer":139},"\u003Cp>Why is a saliva-contaminated sputum rejected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A sputum with many squamous epithelial cells and few neutrophils on the screening Gram stain is mostly saliva, carrying oral flora rather than the lower-respiratory pathogen. Culturing it grows contaminants, so a proper deep-cough specimen is requested instead.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":141,"answer":142},"\u003Cp>How soon must specimens reach the laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>As a general rule within 2 hours, after which an unpreserved specimen may be rejected. When a delay is unavoidable, the correct transport medium or storage condition is used, room temperature for the never-refrigerate group, refrigeration for urine and routine swabs.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":145,"title":146,"description":147,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":148,"lastUpdatedDate":119,"draft":46,"category":149,"image":42,"faq":150,"tags":172},"sample-collections-for-laboratory-diagnosis-of-fungal-infections","Sample Collection for Fungal Infections: Which Specimen, How to Collect and Transport","\u003Cp>Which specimen to collect for a suspected fungal infection by site, how to collect skin, nail, hair, blood, CSF, respiratory, urine, and tissue correctly, and the transport rule.\u003C\u002Fp>","2021-04-03","mycology",[151,154,157,160,163,166,169],{"question":152,"answer":153},"\u003Cp>Why is a skin scraping better than a swab for a suspected fungal infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The fungus lives in the keratin at the advancing edge of the lesion, not loose on the surface. A swab collects surface debris and often misses the fungus, while scraping the growing margin with a slide edge or scalpel collects the living organism. Swabs give more false-negative results for dermatophyte infections.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":155,"answer":156},"\u003Cp>Should fungal specimens be refrigerated if there is a delay?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Almost never. Skin, nail, hair, CSF, blood, and tissue are kept at room temperature. Only urine is refrigerated (at 4°C) if processing is delayed beyond 2 hours. The rule is: warm for nearly all fungal specimens, refrigerate only urine.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":158,"answer":159},"\u003Cp>How should nail specimens be collected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>From beneath the nail plate, sampling the softened subungual material from the nail bed, because that is where the fungus grows. If that is not possible, scrape away the surface of the nail and collect shavings from the deeper portions. A surface clipping alone is a poor specimen.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":161,"answer":162},"\u003Cp>Why must hairs be plucked rather than cut?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The infection is at the hair root and the base of the shaft. Cutting the hair leaves the diagnostic part on the scalp. Hairs are plucked with forceps so the root is included, and a Wood lamp can help identify which hairs to sample.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":164,"answer":165},"\u003Cp>Where on a ringworm lesion should the scraping be taken?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>From the raised, red, advancing margin. The center of the lesion is often healing and holds little live fungus, while the active edge is where the fungus is growing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":167,"answer":168},"\u003Cp>Can tissue for fungal culture be placed in formalin?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Formalin kills the fungus and makes culture impossible. Send fresh tissue kept moist in sterile saline for culture, and a separate portion in formalin only if histopathology is also requested.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":170,"answer":171},"\u003Cp>Why is a 24-hour urine sample not accepted for fungal culture?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Pooling urine over 24 hours lets contaminating bacteria overgrow, which obscures the fungus. A fresh first early-morning sample is preferred, refrigerated if there is a delay.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":174,"title":175,"description":176,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":177,"createdDate":178,"lastUpdatedDate":179,"draft":46,"category":180,"image":42,"faq":181,"tags":200},"transport-medium-bacterial-viral-sample-transport-used-microbiology-laboratory","Transport Media Used in Microbiology Lab","Which transport medium to reach for depending on the suspected organism, why there's no single universal choice, and links to the full mechanism of each.","Nisha Rijal","2015-02-05","2026-08-24","culture-media",[182,185,188,191,194,197],{"question":183,"answer":184},"Why do transport media contain no nutrients?","\u003Cp>Transport media contain only buffers and salts, deliberately excluding carbon sources, nitrogen sources, and organic growth factors. The purpose is organism preservation, not growth. \u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>A medium that supports bacterial multiplication would change the relative proportions of organisms in a mixed specimen during transit: organisms that grow fastest would overgrow slower-growing pathogens, generating a misleading culture result. \u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Transport media maintain viability of organisms without allowing proliferation, preserving the original specimen composition until laboratory processing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":186,"answer":187},"Can bacterial transport medium (Amies or Stuart's) be used for viral specimens?","\u003Cp>No. Bacterial and viral transport media are not interchangeable and must never be substituted for each other. Viral transport medium (VTM) contains antibiotics (gentamicin, amphotericin B) specifically to suppress bacterial and fungal contamination while maintaining viral viability. \u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Bacterial transport media do not contain these antibiotics, so bacterial contamination rapidly overgrows viral material. Conversely, the antibiotics in VTM would inhibit bacterial cultures if used for bacterial specimens. Using the wrong transport medium for viral or chlamydial specimens results in specimen failure and missed diagnoses.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":189,"answer":190},"\u003Cp>Which transport medium should be used for a stool specimen when \u003Cem>Vibrio cholerae \u003C\u002Fem>is suspected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Cary-Blair transport medium is the medium of choice for stool specimens when \u003Cem>V. cholerae \u003C\u002Fem>is suspected. Its alkaline pH (8.4) maintains \u003Cem>V. cholerae\u003C\u002Fem> viability better than any other transport medium. \u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Alkaline Peptone Water (APW, pH 8.6) can also be used but only if the subculture will occur within 6 hours of collection, after 6 hours, other enteric organisms overgrow \u003Cem>V. cholerae\u003C\u002Fem> in APW. \u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Amies and Stuart's media are acceptable for \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Shigella \u003C\u002Fem>transport but are inferior to Cary-Blair for \u003Cem>V. cholerae\u003C\u002Fem>. In a cholera outbreak setting, Cary-Blair should be the standard stool transport medium.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":192,"answer":193},"How is a transport medium different from a culture medium?","Their design goals are opposite. A culture medium is built to support active growth. A transport medium is built to hold organisms in a stable, non-multiplying, non-dying state. This is why transport media deliberately lack enrichment such as blood, serum, and growth factors.",{"question":195,"answer":196},"Is thioglycollate broth a transport medium?","No. Thioglycollate broth is an enrichment and growth medium intended to support the multiplication of anaerobes and facultative organisms. It is often confused with anaerobic transport medium because both contain sodium thioglycollate as a reducing agent, but their purposes are opposite.",{"question":198,"answer":199},"How long can a specimen stay in transport medium?","The commonly quoted 24 to 48 hour figures are validated maxima under controlled conditions, not normal working windows. Recovery of fastidious organisms declines steadily with time, so transport promptly and treat the stated limit as the point beyond which results become unreliable.",[75],{"slug":202,"title":203,"description":204,"seoTitle":205,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":45,"lastUpdatedDate":206,"draft":46,"category":207,"image":42,"faq":208,"tags":209},"nasopharyngeal-swab-collection-procedure","Nasopharyngeal Swab Collection: Procedure, Depth, and Common Mistakes","Step-by-step nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swab collection, how deep the swab should go and how to tell, which swabs are unacceptable, and how to store the specimen so the result stays valid.","Nasopharyngeal and Oropharyngeal Swab Collection: Procedure and Technique","2026-08-12","virology",[],[75],{"slug":211,"title":212,"description":213,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":214,"lastUpdatedDate":119,"draft":46,"category":120,"image":42,"faq":215,"tags":237},"wound-swab-collection-transport-lab-diagnosis","Wound Swab: Collection, the Levine Technique, and When Not to Swab","\u003Cp>Why an open-wound swab is only as good as the technique, how the Levine method samples deep fluid instead of surface flora, how to tell colonization from infection, and when tissue biopsy or aspirate is the right specimen instead.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-14",[216,219,222,225,228,231,234],{"question":217,"answer":218},"\u003Cp>When should a wound be swabbed for culture?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Only when it is clinically infected or chronic and failing to heal. Every open wound is colonized, so swabbing a clean, healing wound just grows colonizers and can lead to unnecessary antibiotics. Signs of infection, such as spreading redness, increasing pain, purulence, and non-healing, guide the decision.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":220,"answer":221},"\u003Cp>What is the Levine technique and why is it preferred?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The Levine technique involves rotating the swab over a 1 cm² area of clean, viable tissue with firm pressure for about 5 seconds, which expresses fluid from deep tissue. This samples the infecting organisms rather than surface flora and recovers results close to a tissue biopsy, outperforming the surface Z-technique.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":223,"answer":224},"\u003Cp>Why must the wound be cleaned with saline before swabbing?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Cleaning with sterile saline removes surface colonizers so the swab reaches the infecting organisms underneath. An antiseptic must not be used just before swabbing, because it suppresses the organisms you are trying to grow.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":226,"answer":227},"\u003Cp>When is a tissue biopsy or aspirate better than a swab?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>For deep, chronic, or serious infections such as diabetic foot ulcers and osteomyelitis, and for any closed collection of pus. Tissue biopsy is the reference standard, and an aspirate protects anaerobes and avoids surface flora. A swab is the fallback when neither can be obtained.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":229,"answer":230},"\u003Cp>Why are anaerobes often missed on a wound swab?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Anaerobes survive poorly on a swab exposed to air. A tissue sample or a capped aspirate protects them much better. When anaerobes are suspected, avoid a plain swab if tissue or aspirate can be taken, or use an anaerobic transport swab.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":232,"answer":233},"\u003Cp>How should wound tissue for culture be transported?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In a sterile container with a little sterile saline to keep it moist. Never place tissue for culture in formalin, which kills all organisms; formalin is only for histopathology.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":235,"answer":236},"\u003Cp>Where in the wound should the sample be taken?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>From viable infected tissue at the advancing margin or the base of the wound, not from dead slough or crust. In burns, sample several areas because organisms are unevenly distributed.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":239,"title":240,"description":241,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":242,"lastUpdatedDate":119,"draft":46,"category":120,"image":42,"faq":243,"tags":265},"eye-specimens-collection-transport-lab-diagnosis","Eye Specimens: Collection and Transport (Conjunctival Swab, Corneal Scraping)","\u003Cp>Why you swab both eyes even when one looks normal, how the specimen changes from conjunctivitis to a corneal ulcer, why eye samples are inoculated at the bedside, and when to think fungus or \u003Cem>Acanthamoeba.\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-15",[244,247,250,253,256,259,262],{"question":245,"answer":246},"\u003Cp>Why should both eyes be swabbed when only one is infected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The apparently normal eye acts as a control for the conjunctiva's normal flora, helping distinguish a true pathogen from a commensal. It is also frequently infected before it shows symptoms, particularly in newborns and in viral and chlamydial conjunctivitis. Use a separate swab for each eye and label them left and right.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":248,"answer":249},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a conjunctival swab and a corneal scraping?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A conjunctival swab samples the surface for conjunctivitis. A corneal scraping samples the corneal tissue at the edge of an ulcer for keratitis, because the pathogen sits within the cornea where a surface swab cannot reach. Scrapings are collected by an ophthalmologist.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":251,"answer":252},"\u003Cp>Why are eye specimens inoculated onto media at the bedside?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Eye specimens are scanty and can dry out and lose their few organisms in transit. Inoculating blood and chocolate agar (and Sabouraud if fungus is suspected) at the patient's side recovers far more than a swab that has to travel to the lab.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":254,"answer":255},"\u003Cp>Why must specimens be collected before eye drops are given?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Topical antibiotics suppress the organisms, and topical anesthetics are themselves bacteriostatic and lower the yield. If drops were already given, a negative culture may reflect suppression rather than true absence of infection, so note any prior treatment on the request.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":257,"answer":258},"\u003Cp>When should fungal or Acanthamoeba keratitis be suspected, and how does that change the specimen?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In contact lens wearers with keratitis. Submit the contact lens, its case, and the cleaning solution along with the corneal scraping, and request special media: non-nutrient agar for \u003Cem>Acanthamoeba\u003C\u002Fem> and Sabouraud agar with a KOH or calcofluor-white preparation for fungi.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":260,"answer":261},"\u003Cp>What organisms are targeted in a newborn with conjunctivitis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Neisseria gonorrhoeae\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Chlamydia trachomatis\u003C\u002Fem>. Gonococcal specimens follow the fragile-organism rules (bedside inoculation, no refrigeration), and Giemsa staining is used to look for chlamydial inclusion bodies. Both eyes are sampled.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":263,"answer":264},"\u003Cp>Should eye specimens be refrigerated if there is a delay?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Fragile organisms such as \u003Cem>Neisseria gonorrhoeae\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Haemophilus\u003C\u002Fem> do not tolerate cold. If a swab must travel, use Amies transport medium at room temperature and deliver it quickly; bedside inoculation is better still.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":267,"title":268,"description":269,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":270,"lastUpdatedDate":84,"draft":46,"category":120,"image":42,"faq":271,"tags":293},"throat-swab-collection-transport-lab-diagnosis","Throat Swab: Collection, Transport, and Lab Diagnosis","\u003Cp>How to take a throat swab that actually samples the tonsils and posterior pharynx, why the tongue and cheeks must be avoided, which test needs which swab, why children need a backup culture, and how to transport it.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-13",[272,275,278,281,284,287,290],{"question":273,"answer":274},"\u003Cp>Where exactly should a throat swab be taken from?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>From both tonsils (or the tonsillar beds) and the posterior pharyngeal wall, targeting any inflamed areas or exudate. Avoid the tongue, cheeks, teeth, uvula, and lips, which carry commensal flora that contaminate the specimen.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":276,"answer":277},"\u003Cp>Why does the patient say \"aah\" during collection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Saying \"aah\" lifts the soft palate and uvula, opening the view to the tonsils and posterior pharynx, and it reduces the gag reflex. Combined with a tongue depressor and good light, it lets you sample the right surface.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":279,"answer":280},"\u003Cp>If a rapid strep test is negative, is a culture still needed?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In children and adolescents, yes. A negative rapid antigen test should be confirmed by a throat culture or molecular test, because a missed Group A strep can lead to rheumatic fever. In adults, a negative rapid test usually does not need a backup culture. A positive rapid test is reliable at any age.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":282,"answer":283},"\u003Cp>How should a throat swab be transported?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>At room temperature, as soon as possible. If a delay beyond about 2 hours is expected, place the swab in Amies or Stuart's transport medium to prevent drying. Use a Dacron or rayon swab, and avoid calcium alginate if a molecular test may be run.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":285,"answer":286},"\u003Cp>Can a throat swab diagnose whooping cough?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. \u003Cem>Bordetella pertussis\u003C\u002Fem> lives in the nasopharynx, so a nasopharyngeal swab or aspirate is required. A throat swab will miss it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":288,"answer":289},"\u003Cp>When should a throat swab not be taken?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>When epiglottitis is suspected (severe sore throat with drooling and breathing difficulty), because provoking the gag reflex can obstruct the airway. That is an emergency requiring airway management, not a swab.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":291,"answer":292},"\u003Cp>Why are two swabs often collected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>One serves the rapid test and the other is held in transport medium for a backup culture, so the patient does not have to return. Alternatively, one makes a smear while the other goes to culture. If only one swab is available, it goes to culture first.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"enabled":295,"threads":296,"total":297},true,[],0,[299,305,312,318,324,329,335,340,346,349,355],{"slug":300,"name":43,"description":301,"image":302,"body":303,"postCount":304},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",482,{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":308,"image":309,"body":310,"postCount":311},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":313,"name":82,"description":314,"image":315,"body":316,"postCount":317},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":319,"name":320,"description":314,"image":321,"body":322,"postCount":323},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":314,"image":42,"body":327,"postCount":328},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":330,"name":331,"description":332,"image":42,"body":333,"postCount":334},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":341,"name":342,"description":314,"image":343,"body":344,"postCount":345},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":347,"name":348,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":350,"name":177,"description":351,"image":352,"body":353,"postCount":354},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":356,"name":357,"description":358,"image":359,"body":360,"postCount":339},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[362,369,375,380,385,390,394,398,402,407,411,416,420,425,429,433,437,441,446,451,455,459,463,468,472,476,480,484,489,494,498,502,506,511,515,519,523,527,531,535,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,572,576,580,584,588,592,596,600,604,608,612,616,620,624,628,632,636,640,644,648,651,655,658,661,664,667,670,673,676,679,682,685,688,691,694],{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":366,"body":367,"postCount":368},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":370,"name":371,"description":372,"image":42,"body":373,"postCount":374},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":397,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":399,"name":400,"description":401,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":410,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":415},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":423,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":424},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":75,"name":426,"description":427,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":428},"Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":430,"name":431,"description":432,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":415},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":434,"name":435,"description":42,"image":42,"body":436,"postCount":328},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":438,"name":439,"description":42,"image":42,"body":440,"postCount":424},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":442,"name":443,"description":444,"image":42,"body":445,"postCount":406},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":450,"postCount":328},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":469,"name":470,"description":471,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":473,"name":474,"description":475,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":483,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":488},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":490,"name":491,"description":492,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":497,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":499,"name":500,"description":501,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":503,"name":504,"description":505,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":424},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":509,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":510},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":512,"name":513,"description":514,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":516,"name":517,"description":518,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":520,"name":521,"description":522,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":424},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":524,"name":525,"description":526,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":488},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":528,"name":529,"description":530,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":532,"name":533,"description":534,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":550},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":571,"postCount":328},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":573,"name":574,"description":575,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":577,"name":578,"description":579,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":581,"name":582,"description":583,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":585,"name":586,"description":587,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":589,"name":590,"description":591,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":424},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":593,"name":594,"description":595,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":415},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":597,"name":598,"description":599,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":601,"name":602,"description":603,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":605,"name":606,"description":607,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":609,"name":610,"description":611,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":613,"name":614,"description":615,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":550},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":617,"name":618,"description":619,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":621,"name":622,"description":623,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":625,"name":626,"description":627,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":629,"name":630,"description":631,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":633,"name":634,"description":635,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":637,"name":638,"description":639,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":641,"name":642,"description":643,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":645,"name":646,"description":647,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":649,"name":650,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":652,"name":653,"description":654,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":656,"name":657,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":550},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":659,"name":660,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":662,"name":663,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":665,"name":666,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":668,"name":669,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":406},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":671,"name":672,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":550},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":674,"name":675,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":677,"name":678,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":550},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":680,"name":681,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":683,"name":684,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":488},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":686,"name":687,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":689,"name":690,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":692,"name":693,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":550},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":695,"name":696,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":493},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]