[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fnlS5FA99RKt8rsZHEYro-rDNMji79siZAUphknsIiiY":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":188,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":252},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":64,"related":66,"comments":184},"stool-concentration-techniques-parasitology","Stool Concentration Techniques in Parasitology: Types, Principle, and When to Use Each","\u003Cp>An overview of stool concentration techniques used to detect intestinal parasites: what concentration means, the sedimentation and flotation methods, how each works, and how to choose the right one for a given specimen.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-29",false,"parasitology","A stool specimen from a child with intermittent diarrhea gives a negative direct wet mount, yet the clinician remains sure a parasite is present. The problem is not the microscope or the technician. A direct wet mount examines only about 2 mg of stool. If the parasites are few, that tiny window will miss them.\n\nConcentration techniques exist to solve exactly this problem: they process a much larger amount of stool, gather the parasites into a small deposit, and turn a probable miss into a confident finding. This article explains what these techniques are, how the main types work, and how to decide which one a given specimen needs.\n\n## What Is a Stool Concentration Technique?\n\nA stool concentration technique is a laboratory method that increases the number of parasitic forms in the portion of stool that reaches the microscope. Protozoan cysts, helminth eggs, and larvae are often present in numbers too low to be seen in a direct wet mount or a stained smear. Concentration methods take a larger volume of stool, separate the parasites from most of the fecal debris, and collect them into a small deposit that is then examined.\n\n**The gain is sensitivity.** A direct wet mount examines roughly 2 mg of stool. A concentration method processes several grams, so it raises the chance of detection several times over. This is why a concentration technique is a standard part of the ova and parasite (O and P) examination, alongside the direct wet mount and the permanent stained smear. The concentration step sits within the full diagnostic sequence covered in the article on [laboratory diagnosis of intestinal parasitic infections](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Flab-diagnosis-intestinal-parasitic-infections\u002F).\n\nConcentration does not replace the other two examinations. The [direct wet mount](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fsaline-wet-mount-diagnosis-intestinal-parasites\u002F) is still needed to see motile trophozoites, which fixation destroys. The permanent stained smear is still needed to confirm protozoan species. Concentration adds a third, more sensitive search for cysts, eggs, and larvae.\n\n## Why Concentrate at All?\n\nThree facts make concentration necessary.\n\n1. **First, parasite output is low and irregular**. Many intestinal parasites shed eggs or cysts in small numbers, and shedding rises and falls from day to day. A single small sample examined directly can easily fall on a low-output moment and show nothing.\n2. **Second, the direct examination samples very little stool.** About 2 mg under a coverslip is a tiny fraction of a specimen that weighs several grams. Most of the stool, and therefore most of the parasites in it, is never looked at.\n3. **Third, fecal debris hides the parasites.** Even when a parasite is present in the drop examined, plant fibers, food remnants, and fat can obscure it. A concentration method removes much of this debris, leaving a cleaner deposit in which parasites are easier to find.\n\nConcentration answers all three problems at once: it draws parasites from a large volume of stool into one small deposit and strips away much of the debris that would otherwise hide them.\n\n## The Two Main Types: Sedimentation and Flotation\n\nAlmost every stool concentration method is a version of one of two ideas: **sedimentation or flotation.** They work by opposite logic, and understanding that contrast is the key to the whole topic.\n\n**Sedimentation** uses a solution of lower specific gravity than the parasites. Because the parasites are denser than the surrounding fluid, they sink. Light centrifugation speeds this up, pulling cysts, eggs, and larvae into a deposit at the bottom of the tube while lighter debris stays suspended above. Since everything denser than the solution settles, sedimentation recovers parasites of every density, including heavy eggs. The deposit contains more debris, but nothing is excluded on the basis of weight.\n\n**Flotation** uses a solution of higher specific gravity than the parasites, such as zinc sulfate or a saturated salt or sugar solution. Now the logic is reversed. The parasites are less dense than the fluid, so they rise to the surface film, where they are lifted off with a coverslip. Heavier debris sinks. The result is a cleaner preparation, but only the eggs and cysts light enough to float are recovered. Dense eggs stay at the bottom and are missed.\n\nThe single most useful distinction to hold on to: **sedimentation makes parasites sink and catches everything, while flotation makes parasites rise and catches only the light ones.** The method is named for what the parasite does.\n\n| Feature | Sedimentation | Flotation |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Solution specific gravity | Lower than parasites | Higher than parasites |\n| What the parasites do | Sink to the bottom | Rise to the surface film |\n| Where parasites are collected | Bottom deposit | Top surface film, lifted with a coverslip |\n| Density coverage | All densities, nothing excluded | Only low-density eggs and cysts |\n| Heavy eggs recovered | Yes | No |\n| Preparation clarity | More debris | Cleaner field |\n| Typical use | General-purpose method for mixed or unknown infections | Cleaner recovery of light eggs and cysts |\n\n## Common Sedimentation Methods\n\nThe **formal-ether sedimentation technique,** also written as the formalin-ethyl acetate concentration technique and abbreviated FECT, is the standard sedimentation method in general diagnostic laboratories. Formalin fixes and preserves the parasites, ethyl acetate dissolves and removes fecal fat, and centrifugation pulls the parasites into the bottom deposit.\n\nIt detects cysts, eggs, and larvae of most intestinal parasites and recovers heavy eggs that flotation misses, which is why it is the usual first-choice concentration method. Its full procedure, the four layers that form after centrifugation, and the reasons each layer forms are covered in the dedicated article to the [formal-ether sedimentation technique.](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fformal-ether-sedimentation-techniques)\n\nA simple gravity sedimentation, without a fat solvent, can be used where a [centrifuge](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fcentrifuge-parts-types-handling\u002F) is not available. The stool suspension is left to stand so that parasites settle under gravity alone, and the deposit is examined. It is slower and gives a less clean deposit than the formal-ether method, but it needs no special reagents or equipment. It is particularly associated with the recovery of schistosome eggs, which are heavy and settle well.\n\n## Common Flotation Methods\n\nThe **zinc sulfate flotation technique** is the most familiar flotation method in clinical parasitology. A zinc sulfate solution of controlled specific gravity floats protozoan cysts and many nematode eggs to the surface, where they are collected on a coverslip. It gives a clean preparation and works well for light forms such as *Giardia* cysts and hookworm eggs. It is not suitable for heavy eggs such as those of *Fasciola*, *Schistosoma*, operculated eggs, and unfertilized *Ascaris*, which do not float and are left behind.\n\nSaturated salt and sugar flotation solutions work on the same principle and are widely used, particularly in veterinary and field settings, because the reagents are cheap and simple to prepare. The trade-off is the same as for zinc sulfate: a clean field, but only for the parasites light enough to rise.\n\n## Related Techniques You May Meet\n\nSome methods sit alongside the two main types or serve a narrower purpose.\n\nThe **Kato-Katz technique** is not a concentration method in the sedimentation-or-flotation sense. It is a quantitative thick-smear method that measures the number of eggs per gram of stool, which is used to grade the intensity of soil-transmitted helminth and schistosome infections in surveys. Its principle, procedure, and egg-per-gram calculation are covered in the dedicated [Kato-Katz article](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fkato-katz-technique-principle-procedure-results\u002F).\n\nLarval recovery methods, such as the Baermann technique, are used when the target is a larva rather than an egg or cyst, as with *Strongyloides stercoralis*. They rely on the active movement of live larvae toward warm water rather than on density, so they are a separate idea from both sedimentation and flotation.\n\n## How to Choose the Right Technique\n\nThe choice follows from what you are looking for and what equipment you have.\n\nFor a general search when the infection is mixed or unknown, sedimentation, and specifically the formal-ether method, is the safe default. It recovers parasites of every density, so it does not miss heavy eggs. This is why it is the workhorse of the routine O and P examination.\n\nFor a clean preparation of light forms, when *Giardia* cysts or hookworm eggs are the main concern and a cleaner field would help, flotation is useful. It should not be the only method when heavy eggs are possible, because it will miss them.\n\nFor grading infection intensity in a survey or treatment program, when the number of eggs per gram matters, the Kato-Katz method answers a question that neither sedimentation nor flotation can, because those methods are not quantitative.\n\nFor a suspected larval infection, such as *Strongyloides*, a larval recovery method like the Baermann technique is more sensitive than a standard concentration, because it exploits larval movement rather than density.\n\nFor a setting without a centrifuge, simple gravity sedimentation still works, more slowly, using no special reagents.\n\n| If you need to | Choose | Why |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Search broadly for a mixed or unknown infection | Formal-ether sedimentation | Recovers cysts, eggs, and larvae of all densities |\n| Recover light eggs or cysts in a clean field | Zinc sulfate flotation | Floats light forms away from debris |\n| Grade how heavy an infection is (eggs per gram) | Kato-Katz | The only quantitative option here |\n| Detect larvae (*Strongyloides*) | Baermann technique | Uses larval movement, not density |\n| Work without a centrifuge | Simple gravity sedimentation | No reagents or equipment needed |\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Sink versus float.** Sedimentation makes parasites sink; flotation makes them float. The way to keep them straight is to think about the solution. A light solution lets heavy parasites fall, which is sedimentation. A heavy solution pushes light parasites up, which is flotation. The name always describes what the parasite does.\n\n**Why flotation misses the heavy eggs.** Picture *Fasciola* and unfertilized *Ascaris* as the heavy eggs. They are too dense to float, so a flotation solution leaves them stranded at the bottom. Sedimentation, which collects everything that sinks, catches them. Heavy eggs are the reason sedimentation is the general-purpose method.\n\n**Three jobs, three methods.** If the question is what is there, use a concentration method (sedimentation or flotation). If the question is how much is there, use Kato-Katz. If the target is a larva, use Baermann. Matching the question to the method keeps the whole topic organized.\n\n## Key Exam Facts\n\n| Fact | Detail | Memory hook |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Purpose of concentration | Increase sensitivity by processing a larger volume of stool | Direct mount sees about 2 mg only |\n| Two main types | Sedimentation and flotation | Sink versus float |\n| Sedimentation principle | Solution lighter than parasites; parasites sink | Heavy parasites fall in a light solution |\n| Flotation principle | Solution heavier than parasites; parasites rise | Light parasites rise in a heavy solution |\n| Standard sedimentation method | Formal-ether (formalin-ethyl acetate), abbreviated FECT | Workhorse of the O and P exam |\n| Standard flotation method | Zinc sulfate flotation | Clean field for light forms |\n| Flotation limitation | Misses heavy eggs (*Fasciola*, *Schistosoma*, unfertilized *Ascaris*, operculated eggs) | Heavy eggs do not float |\n| Kato-Katz | Quantitative thick smear; eggs per gram | Measures how much, not just what |\n| Larval recovery | Baermann technique for *Strongyloides* | Uses larval movement, not density |\n| Concentration does not replace | Direct wet mount (trophozoites) and permanent stained smear (species confirmation) | Three parts of the O and P exam |\n\n## Where Students Actually Get Confused\n\n**1. \"Concentration replaces the direct wet mount.\"** No. Concentration methods use a fixative that kills and preserves parasites, so motile trophozoites cannot be seen in a concentrate. The direct wet mount from fresh stool is still required to detect moving trophozoites. Concentration adds sensitivity for cysts, eggs, and larvae; it does not cover everything the direct mount covers.\n\n**2. \"Flotation is better because the preparation is cleaner.\"** A cleaner field is not the same as higher sensitivity. Flotation gives a clean preparation, but only for the eggs and cysts light enough to rise in the solution. Heavy eggs never reach the surface film and are missed. Sedimentation looks messier but recovers parasites of every density, which is why it is preferred for a general search.\n\n**3. \"Kato-Katz is a concentration technique.\"** Kato-Katz is a quantitative method that measures eggs per gram. It answers how heavy an infection is, not simply whether a parasite is present. It is grouped with stool examination methods, but it does not work by concentrating parasites through sedimentation or flotation, and it is used mainly for soil-transmitted helminths and schistosomes.\n\n**4. \"Sedimentation and flotation detect the same parasites.\"** They do not. Sedimentation recovers all densities. Flotation recovers only low-density forms. The difference matters most for heavy eggs, which sedimentation catches and flotation misses. If only one method can be run and the infection is unknown, sedimentation is the safer choice.\n\n**5. \"More centrifugation is always better.\"** Centrifugation must be sufficient to bring small forms down, but the deposit and the debris both concentrate together. The standard speeds and times for each method exist to balance recovery against a workable, readable deposit. The detail belongs to each method's own procedure.\n\n## References\n\n1. Garcia, L. S. (2016). *Diagnostic Medical Parasitology* (6th ed.). ASM Press.\n2. Procop, G. W., Church, D. L., Hall, G. S., Janda, W. M., Koneman, E. W., Schreckenberger, P. C., & Woods, G. L. (2017). *Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology* (7th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.\n3. Cheesbrough, M. (2006). *District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries* (2nd ed., Part 1). Cambridge University Press.\n4. World Health Organization. (2019). *Bench aids for the diagnosis of intestinal parasites* (2nd ed.). WHO.\n5. CDC – DPDx: Laboratory Identification of Parasites of Public Health Concern. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdc.gov\u002Fdpdx\u002Findex.html>",[49,52,55,58,61],{"question":50,"answer":51},"\u003Cp>What are the two main stool concentration techniques?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The two main types are sedimentation and flotation. Sedimentation uses a solution lighter than the parasites, so the parasites sink into a deposit that is examined; the formal-ether (formalin-ethyl acetate) method is the standard example. Flotation uses a solution heavier than the parasites, so the parasites rise to a surface film that is collected on a coverslip; zinc sulfate flotation is the standard example.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":53,"answer":54},"\u003Cp>Why is a stool concentration technique used?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It increases sensitivity. A direct wet mount examines only about 2 mg of stool, so it easily misses parasites that are present in low numbers. A concentration method processes several grams of stool, gathers the parasites into a small deposit, and removes much of the debris, raising the chance of detection several times over.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":56,"answer":57},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between sedimentation and flotation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They work by opposite logic. In sedimentation the solution is lighter than the parasites, so all cysts, eggs, and larvae sink and are recovered regardless of density. In flotation the solution is heavier than the parasites, so only light eggs and cysts rise and are collected, while heavy eggs sink and are missed. Sedimentation is the general-purpose method; flotation gives a cleaner preparation for light forms.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":59,"answer":60},"\u003Cp>Is Kato-Katz a concentration technique?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Kato-Katz is a quantitative thick-smear method that measures eggs per gram of stool, used mainly to grade the intensity of soil-transmitted helminth and schistosome infections. It does not concentrate parasites by sedimentation or flotation; it answers how heavy an infection is rather than simply whether a parasite is present.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":62,"answer":63},"\u003Cp>Which concentration technique is best?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>There is no single best method; the choice depends on the goal. For a general search of a mixed or unknown infection, formal-ether sedimentation is the safe default because it recovers parasites of all densities. For a clean recovery of light forms such as \u003Cem>Giardia\u003C\u002Fem> cysts, zinc sulfate flotation is useful. For grading infection intensity, Kato-Katz is used, and for suspected \u003Cem>Strongyloides\u003C\u002Fem> larvae, the Baermann technique is more sensitive.\u003C\u002Fp>",[65],"copromicroscopic-technique",[67,93,115,140,165],{"slug":68,"title":69,"description":70,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":71,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":72,"tags":91},"lab-diagnosis-intestinal-parasitic-infections","Laboratory Diagnosis of Intestinal Parasitic Infections: Methods, Specimen Handling, and When to Use Each Test","\u003Cp>Complete guide to laboratory diagnosis of intestinal parasites: stool collection, O&P examination, concentration techniques, permanent stains, culture, serology, and PCR with a decision table and specimen exceptions for pinworm and Schistosoma.\u003C\u002Fp>","2018-11-13",[73,76,79,82,85,88],{"question":74,"answer":75},"What is the O&P examination for intestinal parasites?","The Ova and Parasite (O&P) examination is the standard laboratory protocol for diagnosing intestinal parasitic infections. It consists of four sequential steps: macroscopic examination of the stool, direct saline and iodine wet mount (for motile trophozoites and helminth eggs), a concentration technique (formal-ether sedimentation or Kato-Katz), and a permanent stained smear (trichrome or iron-haematoxylin) when protozoan identification is required. Each step detects organisms that the others may miss.",{"question":77,"answer":78},"Why must liquid stool be examined within 30 minutes?","\u003Cp>Liquid stool from patients with acute diarrhea may contain trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica or Giardia lamblia. Trophozoites are motile and identifiable by their characteristic movement, but they disintegrate rapidly after passage. After 30 minutes, motility is lost and trophozoites degenerate, making identification unreliable. Formed stool (containing cysts and eggs, which are more stable) can be examined within 24 hours.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":80,"answer":81},"Why is pinworm not diagnosed from a routine stool O&P examination?","Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm) females migrate from the rectum to the perianal skin at night to deposit eggs. These eggs are rarely shed into the stool in detectable numbers. The correct diagnostic method is the cellophane (Scotch) tape test: transparent adhesive tape is pressed against the perianal skin early in the morning before bathing and applied to a glass slide for microscopic examination. This has far higher sensitivity than stool O&P for pinworm diagnosis.",{"question":83,"answer":84},"What stain is used to diagnose Cryptosporidium in stool?","\u003Cp>Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts are acid-fast and are not detected by routine direct wet mount or trichrome staining. A modified acid-fast stain (modified Ziehl-Neelsen or Kinyoun) is required, oocysts appear as pink-red spheres against a blue background. The same stain detects \u003Cem>Cyclospora cayetanensis\u003C\u002Fem> and\u003Cem> Cystoisospora belli\u003C\u002Fem>. This stain must be specifically requested and is especially important in HIV\u002FAIDS patients with unexplained chronic diarrhea.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":86,"answer":87},"What is the difference between formal-ether sedimentation and Kato-Katz technique?","\u003Cp>Formal-ether sedimentation concentrates cysts, eggs, and larvae from a stool sample using formalin fixation and ethyl acetate, suitable for detecting all intestinal parasites including protozoa (but not trophozoites). Kato-Katz uses a large, standardized stool volume pressed through a mesh screen onto a slide for quantitative helminth egg detection, it gives eggs per gram (EPG) of stool, useful for measuring infection intensity and treatment response. Kato-Katz detects helminth eggs only and cannot identify protozoa.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":89,"answer":90},"How many stool specimens are needed to diagnose giardiasis?","\u003Cp>A minimum of three stool specimens collected on separate days is recommended for most intestinal parasites. For \u003Cem>Giardia lamblia\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Entamoeba histolytica\u003C\u002Fem>, six specimens are preferred because cyst shedding is intermittent, a single specimen misses up to 30% of infections. If clinical suspicion remains high after negative results, stool antigen EIA for Giardia offers higher sensitivity than repeated microscopy.\u003C\u002Fp>",[65,92],"specimen-collection-transport",{"slug":94,"title":95,"description":96,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":97,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":98,"tags":114},"saline-wet-mount-diagnosis-intestinal-parasites","Saline Wet Mount for Intestinal Parasites: Principle, Procedure, and Results","\u003Cp>Learn how to prepare and examine a saline and iodine wet mount for intestinal parasites (trophozoites, cysts, and helminth eggs) with organism-specific results, interpretation tips, and exam mnemonics.\u003C\u002Fp>","2015-10-18",[99,102,105,108,111],{"question":100,"answer":101},"What is the difference between a saline and an iodine wet mount?","\u003Cp>A saline wet mount uses 0.85% NaCl and preserves motility, making it ideal for detecting live trophozoites of \u003Cem>Entamoeba histolytica\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Giardia lamblia\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Balantidium coli,\u003C\u002Fem> as well as helminth eggs and larvae. \u003Cbr>\u003Cbr>An iodine (Lugol's) wet mount kills organisms but stains glycogen masses and nuclei, revealing the internal structure of protozoan cysts. Both preparations are made side-by-side on the same slide and examined together.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":103,"answer":104},"\u003Cp>How do you identify \u003Cem>Entamoeba histolytica\u003C\u002Fem> on saline wet mount?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>E. histolytica\u003C\u002Fem> trophozoites show directional, progressive motility using pseudopodia. The diagnostic hallmark is the presence of ingested red blood cells inside the cytoplasm, which indicates active tissue invasion. \u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>This distinguishes \u003Cem>E. histolytic\u003C\u002Fem>a from the morphologically identical but non-pathogenic \u003Cem>E. dispar \u003C\u002Fem>(which does not ingest RBCs) and from \u003Cem>E. coli\u003C\u002Fem> (sluggish motility, no RBC ingestion).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":106,"answer":107},"Why must liquid stool be examined within 30 minutes for wet mount?","Trophozoites are fragile and motile only in fresh specimens. They begin to degenerate after 30 minutes, losing motility and becoming morphologically unidentifiable. After this window, trophozoite diagnosis is unreliable. Cysts and helminth eggs are more stable and can be detected for up to 24 hours in formed stool.",{"question":109,"answer":110},"\u003Cp>Does bile affect the visibility of parasite eggs in stool?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Bile does not hide eggs or make them harder to detect. As an egg passes through the intestine, its shell may take up bile and turn brown or golden-yellow. This is called bile staining, and it is an aid to identification, not an obstacle. Bile-stained eggs include those of \u003Cem>Ascaris lumbricoides\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Trichuris trichiura\u003C\u002Fem>, hookworm, and \u003Cem>Taenia\u003C\u002Fem> species. Non-bile-stained eggs, such as those of \u003Cem>Hymenolepis nana\u003C\u002Fem> and the operculated fluke eggs, remain colorless and are identified by shape and shell detail instead of color.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":112,"answer":113},"\u003Cp>Is the saline wet mount the same as a direct fecal smear?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. The saline wet mount is also called the direct fecal smear or direct wet mount, and in some regions the stool examination it belongs to is called fecalysis. All refer to mixing a small portion of stool with a drop of normal saline on a slide and examining it directly under the microscope for motile trophozoites, cysts, and helminth eggs and larvae.\u003C\u002Fp>",[65],{"slug":116,"title":117,"description":118,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":119,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":120,"tags":139},"formal-ether-sedimentation-techniques"," Formal-Ether (Formalin-Ethyl Acetate) Sedimentation Technique: Principle, Procedure, and Results","\u003Cp>Step-by-step guide to the formal-ether (formalin-ethyl acetate) sedimentation technique, or FECT: principle, the four layers and which one holds the parasites, quality control, and when to choose it over flotation or Kato-Katz.\u003C\u002Fp>","2012-08-03",[121,124,127,130,133,136],{"question":122,"answer":123},"What is the principle of the formal-ether sedimentation technique?","The principle is differential specific gravity centrifugation. Formalin preserves parasitic forms and kills organisms (making them non-infectious). Ethyl acetate dissolves and removes fecal fats into the top layer. Centrifugation causes the denser parasitic elements (cysts, eggs, larvae) to sediment at the bottom, while lighter debris and fats are distributed in the upper layers. Only the sediment is examined microscopically.",{"question":125,"answer":126},"What does formal-ether sedimentation detect and what does it miss?","\u003Cp>Formal-ether sedimentation detects protozoan cysts, helminth eggs, and larvae with high sensitivity: approximately 3 to 5 times more sensitive than direct wet mount. It does not detect trophozoites (killed by formalin) and has unreliable sensitivity for \u003Cem>Cryptosporidium \u003C\u002Fem>oocysts, which require a modified acid-fast stain applied to the sediment smear.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":128,"answer":129},"Why is ethyl acetate used instead of ether in the modern technique?","\u003Cp>Diethyl ether, used in the original procedure, is highly flammable and has explosive vapor risk, a significant laboratory safety hazard especially near centrifuges and electrical equipment. Ethyl acetate performs the same function (dissolving fecal lipids into the top layer) without the explosion risk and has become the standard reagent in modern formalin-ethyl acetate concentration (FEAS) protocols.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":131,"answer":132},"\u003Cp>What does FECT mean in parasitology?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>FECT stands for formal-ether concentration technique, also written as the formalin-ethyl acetate concentration technique. It is the stool concentration method described on this page. \"FECT\" is the abbreviation commonly used in laboratory request forms and curricula for the same procedure.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":134,"answer":135},"\u003Cp>Which layer contains the parasites in the formal-ether technique?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The parasites are in the bottom sediment layer. After the final centrifugation, four layers form: ethyl acetate at the top, a plug of debris, a formalin layer, and the sediment at the bottom. Only the sediment is examined. The top three layers are discarded.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":137,"answer":138},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between sedimentation and flotation for stool examination?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Sedimentation uses a solution lighter than the parasites, so all cysts, eggs, and larvae settle into the sediment regardless of density. Flotation uses a solution heavier than the parasites, so only light eggs and cysts rise to the surface film to be collected. Sedimentation recovers heavy eggs (\u003Cem>Fasciola\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Schistosoma\u003C\u002Fem>, unfertilized \u003Cem>Ascaris\u003C\u002Fem>) that flotation misses, which is why it is the general-purpose method. Flotation gives a cleaner preparation but only for the parasites light enough to float.\u003C\u002Fp>",[65],{"slug":141,"title":142,"description":143,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":144,"createdDate":145,"lastUpdatedDate":146,"draft":45,"category":147,"image":42,"faq":148,"tags":164},"centrifuge-parts-types-handling","Centrifuge: Parts, Types, RCF vs. RPM, and How to Balance It Safely","How a centrifuge works, its parts and types, the difference between RCF and RPM (and why it decides reproducibility), and how to balance a rotor safely. A practical guide for laboratory students.","Ashma Shrestha","2022-06-03","2026-07-30","lab-equipment",[149,152,155,158,161],{"question":150,"answer":151},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between RCF and RPM?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>RPM (revolutions per minute) is how fast the rotor spins, shown on the dial. RCF (relative centrifugal force, written as x g) is the actual force the sample experiences, in multiples of gravity. RCF depends on both the RPM and the rotor radius, so the same RPM produces different force on different centrifuges. Protocols specify RCF because it is reproducible; RPM is not.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":153,"answer":154},"\u003Cp>Why do you have to balance a centrifuge?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>At high speed, any uneven weight distribution around the rotor is multiplied into a violent wobble that can crack the rotor, break tubes, or move the machine, and in an ultracentrifuge can cause injury. Balancing keeps the center of mass on the spin axis. Place equal-mass tubes directly opposite each other, and use a water-filled blank if you have an odd number.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":156,"answer":157},"\u003Cp>Should I balance tubes by volume or by weight?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By weight. Two tubes of equal volume but different-density contents are not balanced. Match the masses of opposing tubes, not just their fill levels.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":159,"answer":160},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a fixed-angle and a swinging-bucket rotor?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A fixed-angle rotor holds tubes at a set angle and pellets particles quickly against the tube wall. A swinging-bucket rotor lets the tubes swing out to horizontal while spinning, giving a flat pellet and clean separation of layers, which suits density-gradient work and separating blood.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":162,"answer":163},"\u003Cp>Why are some centrifuges refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The friction of a spinning rotor generates heat that can damage heat-sensitive samples such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and antibodies. A refrigerated centrifuge holds a low temperature (commonly around 4°C) during the spin to protect these samples.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":166,"title":167,"description":168,"seoTitle":169,"seoDescription":170,"author":43,"createdDate":171,"lastUpdatedDate":172,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":173,"tags":183},"kato-katz-technique-principle-procedure-results","Kato-Katz Technique: Principle, Procedure, EPG Calculation, and Results","\u003Cp>How to perform the Kato-Katz technique for helminth diagnosis: principle, step-by-step procedure, egg-per-gram (EPG) calculation, WHO infection intensity thresholds, and when to use it over formal-ether concentration.\u003C\u002Fp>","Kato-Katz Technique: Procedure, EPG Calculation, and Interpretation","Perform a Kato-Katz thick smear, identify helminth eggs, calculate eggs per gram, apply infection-intensity thresholds, and recognize method limitations.","2016-05-24","2026-08-22",[174,177,180],{"question":175,"answer":176},"What is the Kato-Katz technique used for?","\u003Cp>The Kato-Katz technique is used for qualitative and quantitative diagnosis of intestinal helminthic infections, specifically soil-transmitted helminths (\u003Cem>Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura\u003C\u002Fem>, hookworm) and \u003Cem>Schistosoma\u003C\u002Fem> species.\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>It presses a standardized volume of stool (41.7 mg) through a mesh screen onto a slide, covers it with glycerol-malachite green cellophane, and allows microscopic identification and counting of helminth eggs. The egg count is multiplied by 24 to give eggs per gram (EPG) of stool, a measure of infection intensity.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":178,"answer":179},"Why must Kato-Katz slides for hookworm be read within 30-60 minutes?","\u003Cp>Hookworm eggs have thin shells that are progressively dissolved by the glycerol in the cellophane during the clearing process. After 60 minutes, the shell contents become unrecognizable, and the eggs appear as empty outlines or disappear entirely. \u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Ascaris, Trichuris,\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Schistosoma\u003C\u002Fem> eggs have thicker shells and are stable for up to 24 hours, but hookworm diagnosis requires immediate slide reading.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":181,"answer":182},"How is EPG calculated from a Kato-Katz slide?","\u003Cp>EPG (eggs per gram) = number of eggs counted on the slide × 24. The multiplier 24 comes from dividing 1,000 mg (1 gram) by the template volume of 41.7 mg. For example, if you count 50 Ascaris eggs, EPG = 50 × 24 = 1,200 EPG, which classifies as a light infection (WHO threshold: light = 1–4,999 EPG for \u003Cem>Ascaris\u003C\u002Fem>). Always check the kit insert, some templates use slightly different volumes.\u003C\u002Fp>",[65],{"enabled":185,"threads":186,"total":187},true,[],0,[189,195,201,208,214,219,225,230,236,239,246],{"slug":190,"name":43,"description":191,"image":192,"body":193,"postCount":194},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",482,{"slug":196,"name":144,"description":197,"image":198,"body":199,"postCount":200},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":202,"name":203,"description":204,"image":205,"body":206,"postCount":207},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":209,"name":210,"description":204,"image":211,"body":212,"postCount":213},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":215,"name":216,"description":204,"image":42,"body":217,"postCount":218},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":220,"name":221,"description":222,"image":42,"body":223,"postCount":224},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":226,"name":227,"description":228,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":229},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":231,"name":232,"description":204,"image":233,"body":234,"postCount":235},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":237,"name":238,"description":228,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":229},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":240,"name":241,"description":242,"image":243,"body":244,"postCount":245},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":247,"name":248,"description":249,"image":250,"body":251,"postCount":229},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[253,260,266,271,276,281,285,289,293,298,302,307,311,316,320,324,328,332,337,342,346,350,354,359,363,367,371,375,380,385,389,393,397,402,406,410,414,418,422,426,430,434,438,442,446,450,454,458,463,467,471,475,479,483,487,491,495,499,503,507,511,515,519,523,527,531,535,539,542,546,549,552,555,558,560,563,566,569,572,575,578,581,584],{"slug":254,"name":255,"description":256,"image":257,"body":258,"postCount":259},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":261,"name":262,"description":263,"image":42,"body":264,"postCount":265},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":267,"name":268,"description":269,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":270},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":272,"name":273,"description":274,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":277,"name":278,"description":279,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":280},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":284,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":270},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":286,"name":287,"description":288,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":265},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":290,"name":291,"description":292,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":265},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":299,"name":300,"description":301,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":259},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":303,"name":304,"description":305,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":308,"name":309,"description":310,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":259},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":92,"name":317,"description":318,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":319},"Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":321,"name":322,"description":323,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":42,"image":42,"body":327,"postCount":218},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":329,"name":330,"description":42,"image":42,"body":331,"postCount":315},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":42,"body":336,"postCount":297},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":42,"body":341,"postCount":218},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":347,"name":348,"description":349,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":362,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":364,"name":365,"description":366,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":370,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":374,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":390,"name":391,"description":392,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":280},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":394,"name":395,"description":396,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":398,"name":399,"description":400,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":401},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":411,"name":412,"description":413,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":423,"name":424,"description":425,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":427,"name":428,"description":429,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":431,"name":432,"description":433,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":224},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":435,"name":436,"description":437,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":439,"name":440,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":443,"name":444,"description":445,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":265},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":259},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":42,"body":462,"postCount":218},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":224},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":474,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":280},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":476,"name":477,"description":478,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":229},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":480,"name":481,"description":482,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":484,"name":485,"description":486,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":488,"name":489,"description":490,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":270},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":494,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":496,"name":497,"description":498,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":500,"name":501,"description":502,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":280},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":504,"name":505,"description":506,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":508,"name":509,"description":510,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":512,"name":513,"description":514,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":516,"name":517,"description":518,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":520,"name":521,"description":522,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":524,"name":525,"description":526,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":280},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":528,"name":529,"description":530,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":532,"name":533,"description":534,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":229},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":543,"name":544,"description":545,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":547,"name":548,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":550,"name":551,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":553,"name":554,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":65,"name":559,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":561,"name":562,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":567,"name":568,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":570,"name":571,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":573,"name":574,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":579,"name":580,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":582,"name":583,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":585,"name":586,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]