[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fJ9m2hKAszjmgqDHIzfACRg5ptomrPM_s29-5tDgnjRM":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":283,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":348},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":74,"related":76,"comments":279},"specimen-collection-diagnosis-urinary-tract-infection","Urine Culture: Sample Collection, Transport and Lab Diagnosis ","\u003Cp>The organisms that cause UTI, how to collect and culture urine correctly, and how to read colony counts to separate real infection from contamination.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-12","2026-08-14",false,"bacteriology","A young woman's urine culture grows three different organisms at 10⁴ CFU\u002FmL each. The intern is ready to start antibiotics. The bench technologist reads the same plate and reports it as a contaminated specimen, no significant growth, please recollect. Both are looking at the same plate. The difference between them is not the organism list, it is knowing what a urine culture can and cannot tell you. That judgment is what this article is about.\n\nBacteria can invade and cause UTI via three major routes: ascending, hematogenous, and lymphatic. The ascending route is the most common in females. Hematogenous spread accounts for fewer than 5% of UTIs and rarely occurs with gram-negative bacilli.\n\nPolymicrobial UTI in the absence of anatomic abnormalities, foreign bodies, or trauma is rare. Three or more organisms in large quantities usually indicates a contaminated specimen, a point that becomes central when you interpret the culture later in this article.\n\n## Etiology\n\n***Escherichia coli:*** *Escherichia coli* is the most common cause of community-acquired symptomatic UTIs, especially cystitis. Uropathogenic *E. coli* (UPEC) has remained the predominant uropathogen (80%) isolated in acute community-acquired uncomplicated UTIs. *Escherichia coli* can adhere to the urethral and bladder mucosa via pili.\n\n***Staphylococcus aureus :*** *Staphylococcus aureus* can cause pyelonephritis (infection of the renal parenchyma). In the case of bacteremic patients, *S. aureus* reaches the kidney via hematogenous spread or the descending route.\n\nBecause *S. aureus* typically reaches the kidney hematogenously, *S. aureus* in urine should prompt a question about bloodstream infection rather than a simple ascending UTI. This is why any count of *S. aureus* from a suprapubic or catheter specimen can be significant (see interpretation below).\n\n**Staphylococcus saprophyticus:** It is common in young women. Approximately 10% to 15% of cases of UTIs in women of reproductive age groups are caused by *S. saprophyticus. S. saprophyticus is the one coagulase-negative staphylococcus you do not dismiss as skin contaminant in a symptomatic young woman.*\n\nMycobacteria: Mycobacteria can cause UTI in HIV-positive patients.\n\n***Pseudomonas aeruginosa:*** *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* can cause urinary tract infections, most common in patients staying in healthcare settings for longer. Patients with anatomic or neurologic abnormalities affecting their urinary tract or heavily antibiotic-experienced patients are also predisposed to *UTIs* from *Pseudomonas aeruginosa.*\n\n**Enterococci:** Infrequently cause uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis.\n\n**Other bacteria:** Other bacteria commonly isolated from patients with UTIs are *Klebsiella* spp., *Proteus* spp. *Enterobacter* spp. *Acinetobacter*, *Citrobacter*, beta-hemolytic streptococci etc.\n\n***Candida:*** *Candida* species can cause UTI in patients with extensive prior antibiotic use and indwelling Foley catheters. Other high-risk groups are patients with diabetes, immunocompromised patients, and those on immunosuppressive therapy.\n\n**Viruses:** Viruses rarely cause UTIs. Adenovirus, BK virus, and cytomegalovirus can cause hemorrhagic cystitis. These viruses almost exclusively cause cystitis in immunocompromised hosts such as those who have undergone stem cell transplants.\n\n## Factors affecting prevalence of etiological agents\n\nThe etiology of UTI is also affected by underlying host factors that complicate UTI, such as\n\n1. **Age:** The most common organisms isolated in children with uncomplicated UTI are Enterobacteriaceae. Gram-positive organisms are common, and polymicrobial infections account for up to 1 in 3 infections in the elderly.\n2. **Gender:** Women are affected far more often than men because the female urethra is much shorter (about 4 cm) than the male urethra (about 18 to 20 cm), so bacteria reach the bladder more easily. The urethral opening in women also lies close to the vaginal and anal flora.\n3. **Diabetes**: Etiologic pathogens associated with UTI among patients with diabetes include *Klebsiella* spp., Group B streptococci, and *Enterococcus* spp., as well as *E. coli*.\n4. **Spinal cord injury or urinary catheterization**: Patients with spinal cord injuries commonly have *E. coli* infections.\n\n**Complicated vs. Uncomplicated UTI**\n\nComplicated UTI has a more diverse etiology than uncomplicated UTI, and organisms that rarely cause disease in healthy patients can cause significant disease in hosts with anatomic, metabolic, or immunologic underlying diseases.\n\n## When to send urine for culture\n\nSend urine for culture only when there is strong clinical suspicion of UTI, to avoid detecting asymptomatic bacteriuria. Culture is specifically indicated in suspected pyelonephritis (loin pain and fever), suspected UTI in men, recurrent UTI, pregnancy, and failed empiric treatment or persistent symptoms.\n\n![Urinary tract - Source](\u002Fblogs\u002FUrinary-Tract-Infection-in-Man.jpg)Common symptoms are frequency, urgency, dysuria, suprapubic pain, cloudy or bloody or strong-smelling urine, and flank pain.\n\n## Urine Sample Collection\n\nBoth noninvasive and invasive methods for collecting urine samples are available. Samples obtained from invasive methods are reliable as they are less likely to be contaminated and easy to interpret.\n\nUrine collected by noninvasive methods passes through the contaminated milieu, so semi-quantitative culture is used to diagnose urinary tract infections (UTI) and to discriminate between contamination, colonization (asymptomatic bacteriuria), and clinical infection.\n\nThe methods form a ladder from cleanest to most contamination-prone. You step down the ladder to the least invasive method that will still answer the clinical question.\n\n| Rank | Method | Best for | Contamination risk | When to use it |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 (cleanest) | Suprapubic aspiration | Infants, young children, or when other methods fail | Lowest (bypasses the urethra) | Rarely needed; reference standard |\n| 2 | Straight (in-and-out) catheter | Patients who cannot void a clean sample | Low | When clean-catch is unreliable and a clean result is essential |\n| 3 (routine) | Clean-catch midstream | Most cooperative adults | Moderate (passes distal urethra) | The default for routine adult collection |\n| 4 | Indwelling catheter port | Patients already catheterized | Moderate to high | Aspirate from the port, never the drainage bag |\n| Not acceptable | Urine from a drainage bag | Never | Very high | Do not culture; organisms multiply in the bag |\n\n**Children are the main reason the ladder exists.** Infants and young children cannot give a reliable clean-catch, so suprapubic aspiration or catheterization is used when a trustworthy result is needed. Bag specimens may be used for screening only: a negative bag specimen helps rule out infection, but a positive one must be confirmed by a cleaner method before treatment, because bag samples are heavily contaminated by skin and perineal flora.\n\n### Suprapubic aspiration\n\nSuprapubic aspiration is the reference method for avoiding contamination, because the needle enters the bladder directly through the abdominal wall and bypasses the urethra entirely. Urine is withdrawn into a syringe through a percutaneously inserted needle.\n\n**Use:** Reserved for situations where a clean specimen cannot be obtained any other way, most often infants and young children who cannot give a clean-catch sample, and occasionally adults when other methods have failed or given equivocal results. It is invasive and resource-intensive, so it is not used for routine adult collection.\n\n### Straight catheter technique\n\nCollection of urine by use of a single catheter (straight catheter technique) is the next-best technique for obtaining urine specimens with minimal contamination. It is an invasive technique with added disadvantages because inserting a catheter through the urethra can introduce bacteria into the bladder (and thereby cause UTI), and rare complications have been reported.\n\n**Use:** It gives a low-contamination sample and is the next-best option after suprapubic aspiration, but it is too labor-intensive and costly for routine use, and passing a catheter can itself introduce bacteria. Reserve it for patients who cannot provide a reliable clean-catch when a clean result is essential.\n\n### Clean Catch Midstream Urine\n\nIt is the least invasive technique and is used widely. It has an obvious disadvantage compared to the techniques mentioned above. The chances of contamination from normal vaginal, perineal, and anterior urethral flora are high. The urine sample passes through the distal urethra and can become contaminated with commensal bacteria.\n\n**Commensal flora (resident flora) found in the urine samples are**\n\n 1. Anaerobic cocci\n 2. Anaerobic gram-negative bacilli\n 3. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (excluding *S. saprophyticus*)\n 4. Commensal *Mycobacterium* spp.\n 5. Commensal *Mycoplasma* spp.\n 6. Diphtheroids (*Corynebacterium* spp.)\n 7. Lactobacilli\n 8. Nonpathogenic *Neisseria* spp.\n 9. *Propionibacterium* spp.\n10. Viridans and non-hemolytic streptococci\n\n![Urine collection bottle (urinary tract infection)](\u002Fblogs\u002Furine-sample-cup.jpg)**Use:** Most urine specimens are obtained from adult patients via the clean-catch midstream technique\n\n## How to collect Midstream Specimen of Urine (MSU)?\n\n### **Instruction for male patients**\n\n1. Remove undergarments.\n2. Wash hands.\n3. Retract the foreskin completely.\n4. Wipe the head of the penis in a single motion with the first towelette. Repeat with a second towelette. If not circumcised, hold foreskin back before cleansing.\n5. Void 20 to 25 ml into the toilet and catch a portion of the remaining urine in the cup without stopping the stream. Do not touch the cup with the penis.\n6. Place the lid on the cup securely\n7. Immediately transfer to the microbiology laboratory or follow the procedure as indicated by the Hospital personnel.\n\n### Instructions for female patients\n\n1. Wash your hands.\n2. Sit on the toilet with your legs spread apart. Separate the labia (the folds of skin around the urinary opening) with the thumb and forefinger of one hand, and keep them held apart through the whole collection.\n3. Using the first towelette, wipe the inner folds from front to back in a single motion, then discard it. Repeat on the other side with a second towelette, and down the center over the urinary opening with a third.\n4. Keeping the labia held apart, void 20 to 25 mL into the toilet, then, without stopping the stream, catch a portion of the remaining urine in the cup. Do not touch the cup to the skin.\n5. Place the lid on the cup securely.\n6. Transfer to the laboratory promptly, or refrigerate if there will be a delay.\n\nFront-to-back wiping and holding the labia apart are the two steps that most reduce contamination in women. Skipping them is the commonest reason a female clean-catch grows mixed perineal flora and has to be recollected.\n\n### Indwelling Catheter\n\nSpecimen collection from patients with indwelling catheters requires a scrupulous aseptic technique. The catheter tubing should be clamped off above the port to allow the collection of freshly voided urine. The catheter port or wall of the tubing should then be cleaned vigorously with 70% ethanol, and urine aspirated via a needle or syringe; the integrity of the closed drainage system must be maintained to prevent the introduction of organisms into the bladder.\n\n**Do not culture the Foley catheter tip.** It is colonized by urethral and bag flora regardless of infection, so it does not reflect what is in the bladder. Sample fresh urine aspirated from the catheter port instead.\n\n## Transporting the urine sample\n\nUrine is an excellent growth medium, so bacteria multiply in it at room temperature and inflate the colony count. Deliver the sample to the laboratory within 1 to 2 hours of collection. If that is not possible, refrigerate at 2 to 8 degrees C for up to 24 hours, or use a boric acid preservative tube, which holds the bacterial count stable during transport. A sample left at room temperature for hours will overgrow and can turn a contaminant or a low count into a falsely significant one.\n\n## Processing of Urine Sample\n\n### Calibrated Loop: Semi-Quantitative Urine Culture\n\nThe calibrated loop is the most clinically significant type for diagnostic microbiology. Unlike an ordinary inoculating loop, which is not calibrated for a fixed volume, calibrated loops deliver a precise, reproducible volume, which allows semi-quantitative counting without a full serial dilution.\n\n**Standard volumes and their applications:**\n\n| Loop size | Volume delivered | Colony count interpretation | Clinical use |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 µL (0.001 mL) | 1 µL | Colonies × 1000 = CFU\u002FmL | Routine urine culture |\n| 10 µL (0.01 mL) | 10 µL | Colonies x 100 = CFU\u002FmL | Higher sensitivity; low-count infections |\n\n**How the calibrated loop urine culture works:**\n\n1. Mix the urine specimen thoroughly (invert tube gently 5–10 times).\n2. Hold the calibrated loop vertically: the loop must be perpendicular to the surface of the urine to pick up a consistent volume by surface tension. Tilting the loop reduces the volume picked up.\n3. Inoculate CLED agar (or blood agar + MacConkey) using a continuous back-and-forth streak across the full plate diameter, then streaking perpendicular lines across the primary streak.\n4. Incubate at 37°C for 18–24 hours.\n5. Count colonies on the primary streak area for the semi-quantitative result.\n\n> **The key technique point:** Vertical loop angle is everything. A loop held at 45° will underdeliver volume. A loop dipped more than 2–3 mm into the urine will overdeliver. Practice with water and a calibrated volume until the technique is consistent; a reproducible result depends entirely on reproducible loop angle and immersion depth.\n\n**Interpretation:**\n\n\u003Ctable style=\"min-width: 75px;\">\n\u003Ccolgroup>\u003Ccol style=\"min-width: 25px;\">\u003Ccol style=\"min-width: 25px;\">\u003Ccol style=\"min-width: 25px;\">\u003C\u002Fcolgroup>\u003Ctbody>\u003Ctr>\u003Cth colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>Colony count (with 1 µL loop)\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Fth>\u003Cth colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Estimated CFU\u002FmL\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Fth>\u003Cth colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Interpretation\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Fth>\u003C\u002Ftr>\u003Ctr>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Confluent growth on primary streak\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>>10⁵\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Significant bacteriuria (likely infection)\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003C\u002Ftr>\u003Ctr>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Isolated colonies on primary streak only\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>10⁴ to 10⁵\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Borderline; repeat or interpret with clinical context\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003C\u002Ftr>\u003Ctr>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Few colonies, secondary and tertiary areas only\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp><10⁴\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>Likely contamination in most clinical contexts\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003C\u002Ftr>\u003Ctr>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>No growth\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp><10³\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003Ctd colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\">\u003Cp>No significant growth\u003C\u002Fp>\u003C\u002Ftd>\u003C\u002Ftr>\u003C\u002Ftbody>\n\u003C\u002Ftable>\n\n**NOTE**:\n\nIn certain conditions, even growth between 10³–10⁵ CFU\u002FmL is considered significant. Those conditions are:\n\n- Patient is on diuretics\n- Patients being on antimicrobial\n\nIn certain conditions, even any count is considered significant. Those conditions are\n\n- Specimen obtained from catheter tubing\n- Suprapubic aspirate\n- Suspected hematogenously acquired infection (e.g., *S. aureus*)\n\n### Culture\n\nThe standard protocol plates 1 µL of well-mixed urine onto 5% sheep blood agar and MacConkey agar (or CLED as a single-plate alternative), incubated aerobically at 35–37°C for 18–24 hours. Blood agar supports most uropathogens, MacConkey differentiates lactose fermenters and suppresses swarming *Proteus*, and CLED prevents *Proteus* swarming while allowing colony counting on one plate.\n\nThe next day, read the plates for colony count (against the interpretation table above), colony morphology, and any sign of contamination. Only specimens with significant growth are processed further for identification and susceptibility testing.\n\n## Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections\n\nChoice of the antibiotics for the treatment of any infections depends on patients’ specific factors (age, underlying diseases\u002Fabnormalities) local resistance patterns of the etiological agents, and cost & availability of the drugs).\n\nSeveral national and international guidelines help choose an empiric regimen. The widely cited IDSA\u002FESCMID guidance (published 2011, and titled a \"2010 update\") established nitrofurantoin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole), fosfomycin, and pivmecillinam as first-line options for uncomplicated cystitis in women. That guidance is now more than a decade old, so always check current national guidance and your local hospital antibiogram before choosing a regimen, since resistance patterns and recommendations have shifted since then.\n\n**Drugs used for the empiric treatment of uncomplicated UTIs are:**\n\n1. **Ciprofloxacin:** Avoid fluoroquinolones for uncomplicated UTIs when alternative antibiotics are possible. Fluoroquinolones should not be used if the local prevalence of resistance of the uropathogen exceeds 10%.\n2. **Nitrofurantoin:** In patients with reduced renal function, **nitrofurantoin** should only be used if local resistance data suggests a high resistance to alternative agents. Due to lower drug levels in the renal parenchyma, nitrofurantoin and fosfomycin should be avoided in cases of suspected pyelonephritis.\n3. **Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (co-trimoxazole)**: should not be used if the local prevalence of resistance of uropathogen *(E.coli)* exceeds 20%.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n- **The three C's of a positive urine culture**: Contamination, Colonization, and Clinical infection. A positive culture never means \"UTI\" by itself. It means one of three things: organisms from outside the bladder (contamination), organisms living in the bladder without disease (colonization, i.e., asymptomatic bacteriuria), or organisms causing disease (clinical infection). The count narrows it; the patient's symptoms decide it. The word \"clinical\" in the third C is the whole point: symptoms are what separate infection from colonization.\n- **\"10⁵ or it didn't happen.\"** For a clean-catch midstream specimen, ≥10⁵ CFU\u002FmL is the significance threshold. Every exception loosens it, and each loosens it for a reason. The specimen is cleaner (suprapubic aspirate or catheter tube, so any count matters), or the patient is primed so organisms are washed out (diuretics or prior antimicrobials, so 10³ to 10⁵ counts matter), or the route bypasses the urethra entirely (hematogenous S. aureus, so any count matters).\n\n## Key exam facts in one table\n\n| Fact | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Most common uropathogen | *E. coli* (UPEC), \\~80% of acute uncomplicated community-acquired UTI |\n| Second in young women | *S. saprophyticus*, \\~10–15% of reproductive-age female UTI |\n| Reaches kidney by blood, not ascent | *S. aureus* (think bloodstream source) |\n| Healthcare-associated \u002F catheter \u002F prior antibiotics | *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, *Candida* |\n| Why women affected more than men | Female urethra much shorter (about 4 cm) vs male (about 18 to 20 cm) |\n| Best low-contamination collection | Suprapubic aspiration (rarely needed clinically) |\n| Most widely used collection | Clean-catch midstream urine |\n| Significance threshold (clean-catch) | ≥10⁵ CFU\u002FmL |\n| Doubtful, consider repeat | 10⁴–10⁵ CFU\u002FmL |\n| Any count significant | Suprapubic aspirate, catheter-tube specimen, suspected hematogenous *S. aureus* |\n| Standard culture media | Blood agar + MacConkey, or CLED |\n| Routine calibrated loop | 1 µL (Colonies x 1000 = CFU\u002FmL) |\n| Avoid in suspected pyelonephritis | Nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin (low renal-parenchyma levels) |\n| Empiric first-line (uncomplicated cystitis) | Nitrofurantoin, co-trimoxazole, fosfomycin, pivmecillinam |\n| Co-trimoxazole resistance cutoff | Avoid if local *E. coli* resistance >20% |\n| Fluoroquinolone resistance cutoff | Avoid if local resistance >10% |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n- **A positive culture means the patient has a UTI.** No. It means one of three things: contamination, colonization (asymptomatic bacteriuria), or clinical infection. The count and the symptoms decide which.\n- **Three organisms must be a bad polymicrobial infection.** Usually the opposite: three organisms in a clean-catch specimen almost always signals contamination, not severe infection.\n- **Any coagulase-negative staph in urine is skin contaminant.** *S. saprophyticus* is the exception: significant in a symptomatic young woman.\n- **The 10⁵ threshold is absolute.** It's the default for clean-catch. It loosens (to any count, or to 10³) for cleaner specimens (suprapubic, catheter) and primed patients (diuretics, prior antibiotics).\n- **Loop angle is a detail.** It's the whole result. A loop held at 45° or dipped too deep delivers the wrong volume and invalidates the count.\n- **Nitrofurantoin treats everything.** It reaches poor levels in the renal parenchyma, making it the wrong choice for pyelonephritis.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Tille PM. *Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology.* 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.\n2. Leber AL, editor. *Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook.* 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016. DOI: 10.1128\u002F9781683670438.CMPH\n3. Minardi, D., d'Anzeo, G., Cantoro, D., Conti, A., & Muzzonigro, G. (2011). Urinary tract infections in women: etiology and treatment options. *International Journal of General Medicine*, 4, 333–343. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2147\u002FIJGM.S11767>\n4. Chu, C. M., & Lowder, J. L. (2018). Diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections across age groups. *American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology*, 219(1), 40–51. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.ajog.2017.12.231>\n5. Kaur, R., & Kaur, R. (2021). Symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections. *Postgraduate Medical Journal*, 97(1154), 803–812. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1136\u002Fpostgradmedj-2020-139090>\n6. Llor, C., Moragas, A., Aguilar-Sánchez, M., García-Sangenís, A., Monfà, R., & Morros, R. (2023). Best methods for urine sample collection for diagnostic accuracy in women with urinary tract infection symptoms: a systematic review. *Family Practice*, 40(1), 176–182. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1093\u002Ffampra\u002Fcmac058>\n7. Karacan, C., Erkek, N., Senel, S., Akin Gunduz, S., Catli, G., & Tavil, B. (2010). Evaluation of urine collection methods for the diagnosis of urinary tract infection in children. *Medical Principles and Practice*, 19(3), 188–191. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1159\u002F000273068>\n8. Sinawe, H., & Casadesus, D. Urine Culture. In: *StatPearls* \\[Internet\\]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002Fbooks\u002FNBK557569\u002F>\n9. Gupta K, Hooton TM, Naber KG, et al. International Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Acute Uncomplicated Cystitis and Pyelonephritis in Women: A 2010 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(5):e103–e120. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1093\u002Fcid\u002Fciq257>",[50,53,56,59,62,65,68,71],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>When should urine be sent for culture, and when should it not?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Send it only when there is real clinical suspicion of UTI: suspected pyelonephritis (loin pain and fever), UTI in men, recurrent UTI, pregnancy, or failed empiric treatment. Culturing every patient risks detecting asymptomatic bacteriuria, which usually does not need treatment.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>Which collection method gives the least contaminated sample?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Suprapubic aspiration, because the needle enters the bladder directly and bypasses the urethra. It is reserved for infants, young children, or cases where other methods fail. For routine adults, the clean-catch midstream sample is the practical standard despite its higher contamination risk.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>Why can urine never be cultured from a catheter drainage bag?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Bacteria multiply in the bag, so the count no longer reflects what is in the bladder. For a catheterized patient, clamp the tubing above the port, disinfect the port, and aspirate fresh urine through it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>What does the calibrated loop actually do, and why does the angle matter so much?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It delivers a fixed, reproducible volume of urine (commonly 1 microlitre) so that counting colonies gives an estimate of CFU per mL. The result depends entirely on picking up that exact volume, so the loop must be held vertical and dipped only a few millimetres. A tilted or over-dipped loop delivers the wrong volume and invalidates the count.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>Why is \u003Cem>Staphylococcus aureus\u003C\u002Fem> in the urine treated differently from other organisms?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>S. aureus\u003C\u002Fem> usually reaches the kidney through the bloodstream rather than by ascending the urethra. So\u003Cem> S. aureus\u003C\u002Fem> in urine raises the question of a bloodstream infection, and any count from a suprapubic or catheter specimen can be significant rather than dismissed as a low count.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>Is \u003Cem>Staphylococcus saprophyticus\u003C\u002Fem> a contaminant like other coagulase-negative staphylococci?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Most coagulase-negative staphylococci in urine are skin contaminants, but \u003Cem>S. saprophyticus\u003C\u002Fem> is a genuine uropathogen in young women and should not be dismissed in a symptomatic patient.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>How quickly must urine reach the laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Within 1 to 2 hours at room temperature. If delayed, refrigerate at 2 to 8 degrees C for up to 24 hours, or use a boric acid preservative tube. Urine left warm overgrows and can turn a contaminant or a low count into a falsely significant result.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":72,"answer":73},"\u003Cp>Why is nitrofurantoin a poor choice for pyelonephritis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It reaches good concentrations in the bladder urine but poor levels in the kidney tissue (renal parenchyma). That makes it effective for lower UTI (cystitis) but inadequate for a kidney infection. Fosfomycin is avoided in pyelonephritis for the same reason.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],"specimen-collection-transport",[77,105,135,163,191,220,226,251],{"slug":78,"title":79,"description":80,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":81,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":82,"tags":104},"key-points-laboratory-diagnosis-lower-respiratory-tract-infections","Sputum Sample: Collection, Transport, Staining, and Culture","\u003Cp>How to collect a good sputum sample, why the first morning specimen matters, the ideal-to-compromise order when a patient cannot expectorate, the cell criteria that decide accept or reject, and correct transport timing.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-09-04",[83,86,89,92,95,98,101],{"question":84,"answer":85},"\u003Cp>Why is the first morning sputum sample preferred?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Secretions pool in the lower airways overnight, so the first deep cough of the day gives the most concentrated lower-airway material. For tuberculosis this raises the bacillary yield.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":87,"answer":88},"\u003Cp>How does the laboratory decide a sputum sample is really sputum and not saliva?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It screens a Gram-stained smear under low power. A good expectorated sample has more than 25 neutrophils and fewer than 10 squamous epithelial cells per low power field. Many squamous cells indicate saliva, and the sample is rejected. This screen applies to expectorated sputum only.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":90,"answer":91},"\u003Cp>Why is induced sputum sometimes rejected even though it is a valid sample?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Induced sputum is watery and cell-poor, so it fails the squamous-cell screen that is designed for expectorated samples. If it is labeled as induced, the lab bypasses that screen and processes it. Unlabeled, it can be wrongly rejected.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":93,"answer":94},"\u003Cp>What sample is used when a patient cannot cough up sputum?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Step up the invasiveness only as far as needed: induced sputum first, then endotracheal or tracheostomy aspirate in intubated patients, then bronchoscopy with BAL for immunocompromised or non-resolving cases. In young children, gastric aspirate (for TB) or bronchoscopy is often used because children swallow their sputum.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":96,"answer":97},"\u003Cp>How quickly must sputum reach the laboratory, and can it be refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Process within 1 to 2 hours at room temperature. If delayed, refrigerate at 2 to 8 degrees C for up to 24 hours, except when a fastidious organism such as pneumococcus or \u003Cem>Haemophilus influenzae\u003C\u002Fem> is suspected, since cold lowers their recovery.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":99,"answer":100},"\u003Cp>Why might a hospitalized patient's gram-negative growth be ignored?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Intubated and hospitalized patients are colonized by gram-negative and nosocomial flora within days. A few colonies without matching clinical signs usually mean colonization, not infection, so identification and susceptibility testing would not change treatment.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":102,"answer":103},"\u003Cp>What concentration of saline is used for sputum induction?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Nebulized hypertonic saline, 3% to 7% NaCl. Normal saline (0.9%) is too dilute to irritate the airway and trigger a productive cough.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":106,"title":107,"description":108,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":109,"lastUpdatedDate":110,"draft":46,"category":111,"image":42,"faq":112,"tags":134},"sample-collections-for-laboratory-diagnosis-of-fungal-infections","Sample Collection for Fungal Infections: Which Specimen, How to Collect and Transport","\u003Cp>Which specimen to collect for a suspected fungal infection by site, how to collect skin, nail, hair, blood, CSF, respiratory, urine, and tissue correctly, and the transport rule.\u003C\u002Fp>","2021-04-03","2026-08-17","mycology",[113,116,119,122,125,128,131],{"question":114,"answer":115},"\u003Cp>Why is a skin scraping better than a swab for a suspected fungal infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The fungus lives in the keratin at the advancing edge of the lesion, not loose on the surface. A swab collects surface debris and often misses the fungus, while scraping the growing margin with a slide edge or scalpel collects the living organism. Swabs give more false-negative results for dermatophyte infections.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":117,"answer":118},"\u003Cp>Should fungal specimens be refrigerated if there is a delay?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Almost never. Skin, nail, hair, CSF, blood, and tissue are kept at room temperature. Only urine is refrigerated (at 4°C) if processing is delayed beyond 2 hours. The rule is: warm for nearly all fungal specimens, refrigerate only urine.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":120,"answer":121},"\u003Cp>How should nail specimens be collected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>From beneath the nail plate, sampling the softened subungual material from the nail bed, because that is where the fungus grows. If that is not possible, scrape away the surface of the nail and collect shavings from the deeper portions. A surface clipping alone is a poor specimen.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":123,"answer":124},"\u003Cp>Why must hairs be plucked rather than cut?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The infection is at the hair root and the base of the shaft. Cutting the hair leaves the diagnostic part on the scalp. Hairs are plucked with forceps so the root is included, and a Wood lamp can help identify which hairs to sample.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":126,"answer":127},"\u003Cp>Where on a ringworm lesion should the scraping be taken?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>From the raised, red, advancing margin. The center of the lesion is often healing and holds little live fungus, while the active edge is where the fungus is growing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":129,"answer":130},"\u003Cp>Can tissue for fungal culture be placed in formalin?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Formalin kills the fungus and makes culture impossible. Send fresh tissue kept moist in sterile saline for culture, and a separate portion in formalin only if histopathology is also requested.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":132,"answer":133},"\u003Cp>Why is a 24-hour urine sample not accepted for fungal culture?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Pooling urine over 24 hours lets contaminating bacteria overgrow, which obscures the fungus. A fresh first early-morning sample is preferred, refrigerated if there is a delay.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":136,"title":137,"description":138,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":139,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":140,"tags":162},"pus-sample-collection-staining-culture","Pus Sample: Collection, Processing, Staining and Culture","\u003Cp>Why an abscess aspirate beats a swab, the correct fallback when you cannot aspirate, how much pus to collect, how to protect anaerobes in transport, and how the lab stains and cultures a pus sample.\u003C\u002Fp>","2019-02-07",[141,144,147,150,153,156,159],{"question":142,"answer":143},"\u003Cp>Why is an aspirate preferred over a swab for pus?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An aspirate provides more sample, keeps air out so anaerobes survive, and avoids the skin surface where colonizing flora live. A swab loses on all three counts, which is why an aspirate from an undrained abscess is the ideal specimen.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":145,"answer":146},"\u003Cp>What do I do when I cannot get an aspirate?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Take two swabs from the depth of the wound after clearing superficial debris, one for culture and one for the Gram smear. If only one swab is available, inoculate the culture media first, then make the smear from the same swab.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":148,"answer":149},"\u003Cp>How much pus should be collected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Aim for 1 to 5 mL. Larger volumes keep anaerobes viable longer and give the lab enough material for smear, culture, and any special testing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":151,"answer":152},"\u003Cp>Is a swab in Amies medium enough when anaerobes are suspected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Amies prevents the swab from drying but is not a true anaerobic transport method, so strict anaerobes still die. Use a capped syringe aspirate with the air expelled, or tissue in an anaerobic transport system.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":154,"answer":155},"\u003Cp>Should a pus sample be refrigerated if transport is delayed?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>For routine aerobic culture, refrigeration is better than leaving the sample at room temperature. Do not refrigerate if anaerobes or fastidious organisms are suspected, because cold lowers their recovery. For those, transport quickly at room temperature, and remember that a capped aspirate protects anaerobes far better than any swab.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":157,"answer":158},"\u003Cp>How does the Gram stain distinguish colonization from infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By the number of pus cells. Few or no polymorphonuclear cells with abundant skin flora suggests colonization. Moderate to many pus cells suggests true infection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":160,"answer":161},"\u003Cp>Is Cary-Blair medium used for pus samples?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Cary-Blair is for enteric (stool) specimens. If a pus swab must be held during a transport delay, Amies is the medium to use.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":164,"title":165,"description":166,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":167,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":168,"tags":190},"key-points-for-the-laboratory-diagnosis-of-central-nervous-system-infections","CSF Sample: Collection, Processing, Staining, and Culture","\u003Cp>How to collect CSF safely, which tube goes to which lab and why microbiology never gets the first tube, why CSF must never be refrigerated, when to use Trans-Isolate medium, and how the CSF picture separates bacterial from viral and TB meningitis.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-08-08",[169,172,175,178,181,184,187],{"question":170,"answer":171},"\u003Cp>Why must CSF never be refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The common causes of bacterial meningitis (\u003Cem>Neisseria meningitidis\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Haemophilus influenzae\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem>) are fastidious and cold-sensitive. Refrigeration kills them and lowers the chance of a positive culture. Hold CSF at 35°C or room temperature, and use Trans-Isolate medium if processing will be delayed beyond an hour.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":173,"answer":174},"\u003Cp>Which CSF tube should be sent for culture, and why?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Not the first tube. The first drops can carry skin and blood introduced by the needle, which contaminates a culture. The second tube is sent to microbiology. If only one tube is obtained, it goes to microbiology.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":176,"answer":177},"\u003Cp>If only a small volume of CSF is available, which test takes priority?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Microbiology. A culture cannot be repeated without another lumbar puncture, and it identifies the organism and its susceptibility. Cell count and chemistry can usually be done on very small volumes.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":179,"answer":180},"\u003Cp>How do the CSF findings differ between bacterial, viral, and tuberculous meningitis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Bacterial shows many neutrophils, high protein, and low glucose. Viral shows mononuclear cells with normal glucose. Tuberculous and fungal show mononuclear cells with low glucose. The cell type and the glucose together separate them.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":182,"answer":183},"\u003Cp>How quickly must CSF reach the laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Within about 1 hour. Delay lowers the chance of growing the organism, lyses white cells so the count falls, and lowers the glucose through glycolysis, which can distort the result.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":185,"answer":186},"\u003Cp>Why is CSF Gram stain prepared using a cytocentrifuge?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because CSF may contain very few organisms, as low as 10³ CFU\u002FmL. Cytocentrifugation concentrates cells and bacteria onto the slide and greatly improves the chance of seeing the organism.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":188,"answer":189},"\u003Cp>Is India ink enough to diagnose cryptococcal meningitis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. India ink misses many cases. The cryptococcal antigen test is more sensitive and is the preferred method, so a negative India ink does not rule out cryptococcal meningitis.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":192,"title":193,"description":194,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":195,"lastUpdatedDate":196,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":197,"tags":219},"collection-storage-and-transport-of-fecal-specimens-stool-for-microbiological-investigations","Stool Sample: Collection and Transport","\u003Cp>How to collect a stool sample correctly, how many samples and when, the rectal-swab compromise and when it is used, which transport medium or preservative to choose for bacteria versus parasites, and the storage rules that differ between them.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-02-03","2026-08-13",[198,201,204,207,210,213,216],{"question":199,"answer":200},"\u003Cp>How many stool samples are needed to look for parasites?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Three samples collected on separate days, because parasites are shed intermittently and a single stool can be falsely negative. For bacterial culture, one fresh sample in the acute phase is usually enough.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":202,"answer":203},"\u003Cp>When is a rectal swab acceptable instead of passed stool?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>When passed stool cannot be obtained, for example in neonates or severely debilitated patients. The swab must be inserted past the anal sphincter and be visibly stained with feces, then placed in Cary-Blair. It is suitable for bacterial culture but not for parasite examination or C. difficile toxin testing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":205,"answer":206},"\u003Cp>Which transport medium should a stool sample go into?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>For enteric bacteria, Cary-Blair is the medium of choice. For parasites, use a preservative instead: formalin for concentration methods and PVA or a single-vial fixative for permanent stains. Bacteria and parasites need different chemistry.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":208,"answer":209},"\u003Cp>Can a delayed stool sample always be refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Only for bacterial culture and for cysts and ova. An unpreserved liquid stool intended for trophozoite examination must not be refrigerated, since cold kills the motile trophozoites. Examine it fresh within about 30 minutes or fix it immediately.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":211,"answer":212},"\u003Cp>How much stool should be collected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>About 5 mL if the stool is liquid, or 2 grams (roughly two bean-sized portions) if formed. Sample any blood or mucus specifically, since pathogens concentrate there in dysentery.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":214,"answer":215},"\u003Cp>Why should stool not be collected from a bedpan?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Bedpans may contain residual disinfectant that kills pathogens, and the sample can be contaminated with urine. Collect directly into a clean, dry, wide-mouth container.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":217,"answer":218},"\u003Cp>When are stool cultures positive in typhoid fever?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly from the second to third week of illness onward. In the first week, blood culture is the higher-yield test.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"slug":221,"title":222,"description":222,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":223,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":224,"tags":225},"rejection-criteria-for-microbiological-specimens","Microbiology Sample Collection Guidelines and Rejection Criteria","2021-05-04",[],[75],{"slug":227,"title":228,"description":229,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":230,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":231,"tags":250},"microbial-etiology-urinary-tract-infections-uti","Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes, Urine Culture, and Treatment","The organisms that cause UTI, how to collect and culture urine correctly, and how to read colony counts to separate real infection from contamination.","2014-07-07",[232,235,238,241,244,247],{"question":233,"answer":234},"What is the most common cause of a UTI?","Escherichia coli (uropathogenic E. coli, UPEC) causes about 80% of acute, uncomplicated, community-acquired UTIs, especially cystitis. It adheres to the bladder and urethral lining through pili.",{"question":236,"answer":237},"Why are UTIs far more common in women than in men?","The female urethra is much shorter (about 4 cm) than the male urethra (about 20 cm), so organisms reach the bladder more easily by the ascending route. Women are affected roughly 40 to 50 times more often.",{"question":239,"answer":240},"What colony count confirms a UTI on urine culture?","For a clean-catch midstream specimen, ≥10⁵ CFU\u002FmL indicates significant bacteriuria. Counts of 10⁴–10⁵ CFU\u002FmL are doubtful and usually warrant a repeat. Lower counts (10³–10⁵) can still be significant in patients on diuretics or antimicrobials, and any count can be significant from a suprapubic aspirate, a catheter-tube specimen, or suspected hematogenous S. aureus infection.",{"question":242,"answer":243},"Which is the best method to collect urine without contamination?","Suprapubic aspiration gives the least contaminated specimen because it bypasses the distal urethra entirely, but it is invasive and used rarely (mainly in pediatrics). For routine adult collection, clean-catch midstream urine is the practical standard.",{"question":245,"answer":246},"Does a positive urine culture always mean infection?","No. A positive culture can reflect contamination, colonization (asymptomatic bacteriuria), or true infection. The colony count together with the patient's symptoms determines which, so culture is sent only when there is genuine clinical suspicion of UTI.",{"question":248,"answer":249},"Which antibiotics are used first for an uncomplicated UTI?","Guidelines favor nitrofurantoin, co-trimoxazole, fosfomycin, or pivmecillinam for uncomplicated cystitis in women. Avoid co-trimoxazole where local E. coli resistance exceeds 20%, avoid fluoroquinolones where resistance exceeds 10%, and avoid nitrofurantoin or fosfomycin in suspected pyelonephritis because they reach poor levels in the kidney tissue.",[75],{"slug":252,"title":253,"description":254,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":255,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":256,"tags":278},"tissue-biopsy-specimen-collection-transport","Tissue and Biopsy Specimens: Collection, Transport, and Processing","\u003Cp>Why tissue is the reference-standard specimen for deep infection, why the microbiology portion must be split off before formalin or decalcification, when to mince instead of grind, and how one small biopsy is divided across bacterial, AFB, fungal, and histology testing.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-15",[257,260,263,266,269,272,275],{"question":258,"answer":259},"\u003Cp>Why is tissue considered the best specimen for deep infections?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A biopsy samples the organisms actually invading the tissue rather than the flora on the surface, so it is the reference-standard specimen for deep, chronic, and serious infections such as osteomyelitis and deep abscesses. This is why the pus, wound, and sterile-fluid pages point to tissue when it can be obtained.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":261,"answer":262},"\u003Cp>Why must tissue for culture never be placed in formalin?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Formalin kills all organisms, making culture impossible. The microbiology portion must be separated into a sterile container before any part of the specimen touches formalin. Once tissue is fixed, it can be used only for histopathology.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":264,"answer":265},"\u003Cp>How is a single small biopsy divided across several tests?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The fresh microbiology portions (bacterial, mycobacterial, and fungal) are taken first, kept moist in a sterile container, and only then is the remaining piece placed in formalin for histopathology. When volume is limited, the clinician and laboratory prioritize together based on the most likely diagnosis.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":267,"answer":268},"\u003Cp>Why is tissue minced instead of ground when mucormycosis is suspected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The hyphae of \u003Cem>Mucorales\u003C\u002Fem> molds are broad, non-septate, and fragile. Grinding shatters them and produces a false-negative culture even when the fungus is visible on histology. Mincing the tissue preserves viable hyphae, so suspected mucormycosis must be flagged for the laboratory.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":270,"answer":271},"\u003Cp>Why can bone sent for histology not also be cultured?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Bone for histopathology is decalcified in acid, which kills organisms just as formalin does. The culture portion of a bone specimen must be split off fresh before any fixation or decalcification, or nothing viable remains to grow.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":273,"answer":274},"\u003Cp>How should tissue be kept during transport?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In a sterile, leak-proof container with only a few drops of sterile saline to keep it moist, not submerged. Deliver it promptly, use an anaerobic transport system if anaerobes are suspected, and flag any suspected TB, fungal, or \u003Cem>Mucorales\u003C\u002Fem> infection on the request.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":276,"answer":277},"\u003Cp>Should tissue specimens be refrigerated if delayed?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A short delay at refrigeration temperature is acceptable for routine bacterial culture, but not when fastidious organisms are suspected. Keep those at room temperature and transport quickly.\u003C\u002Fp>",[75],{"enabled":280,"threads":281,"total":282},true,[],0,[284,290,297,304,310,315,321,326,332,335,342],{"slug":285,"name":43,"description":286,"image":287,"body":288,"postCount":289},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":293,"image":294,"body":295,"postCount":296},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":301,"body":302,"postCount":303},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":305,"name":306,"description":300,"image":307,"body":308,"postCount":309},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":311,"name":312,"description":300,"image":42,"body":313,"postCount":314},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":42,"body":319,"postCount":320},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":322,"name":323,"description":324,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":325},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":327,"name":328,"description":300,"image":329,"body":330,"postCount":331},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":324,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":325},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":339,"body":340,"postCount":341},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":346,"body":347,"postCount":325},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[349,356,362,367,372,377,381,385,389,394,398,403,407,412,416,420,424,428,433,438,442,446,450,455,459,463,467,471,476,481,485,489,493,497,501,505,509,513,517,521,525,529,533,537,541,545,549,553,558,562,566,570,574,578,582,586,590,594,598,602,606,610,614,618,622,626,630,634,637,641],{"slug":350,"name":351,"description":352,"image":353,"body":354,"postCount":355},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":357,"name":358,"description":359,"image":42,"body":360,"postCount":361},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":370,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":373,"name":374,"description":375,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":376},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":378,"name":379,"description":380,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":382,"name":383,"description":384,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":390,"name":391,"description":392,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":393},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":397,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":399,"name":400,"description":401,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":402},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":376},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":410,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":411},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":75,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":415},"Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":402},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":42,"image":42,"body":423,"postCount":314},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":425,"name":426,"description":42,"image":42,"body":427,"postCount":411},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":432,"postCount":393},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":434,"name":435,"description":436,"image":42,"body":437,"postCount":314},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":439,"name":440,"description":441,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":443,"name":444,"description":445,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":454},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":393},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":376},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":474,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":475},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":480},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":482,"name":483,"description":484,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":486,"name":487,"description":488,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":376},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":490,"name":491,"description":492,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":320},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":494,"name":495,"description":496,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":402},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":500,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":502,"name":503,"description":504,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":506,"name":507,"description":508,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":411},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":510,"name":511,"description":512,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":475},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":514,"name":515,"description":516,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":480},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":518,"name":519,"description":520,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":393},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":522,"name":523,"description":524,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":526,"name":527,"description":528,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":320},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":530,"name":531,"description":532,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":393},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":534,"name":535,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":536},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":538,"name":539,"description":540,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":480},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":542,"name":543,"description":544,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":546,"name":547,"description":548,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":550,"name":551,"description":552,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":554,"name":555,"description":556,"image":42,"body":557,"postCount":314},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":559,"name":560,"description":561,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":376},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":563,"name":564,"description":565,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":567,"name":568,"description":569,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":571,"name":572,"description":573,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":325},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":575,"name":576,"description":577,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":411},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":579,"name":580,"description":581,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":583,"name":584,"description":585,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":587,"name":588,"description":589,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":593,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":480},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":595,"name":596,"description":597,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":376},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":599,"name":600,"description":601,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":536},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":603,"name":604,"description":605,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":607,"name":608,"description":609,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":393},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":613,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":480},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":615,"name":616,"description":617,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":619,"name":620,"description":621,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":393},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":625,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":627,"name":628,"description":629,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":393},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":631,"name":632,"description":633,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":635,"name":636,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":325},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":638,"name":639,"description":640,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":371},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":642,"name":643,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":536},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]