[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$ftdHX-RjN0d_sTkiZnTvZ-TcyMdDOrS-wmaFtzzmoDsM":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":129,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":193},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":40,"seoTitle":41,"seoDescription":41,"author":42,"createdDate":43,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":41,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":49,"related":50,"comments":125},"southern-blotting-principle-steps-and-applications","Southern Blotting: Principle, Steps, Applications",null,"Nisha Rijal","2021-04-29","2026-07-05",false,"lab-equipment","Southern blotting is a molecular technique to find target DNA sequences in a sample. It is a multi-step process, that begins with the electrophoresis of DNA, transfer of DNA fragments into nitrocellulose strip, and exposing those fragments to a DNA probe labeled with a radioactive or chemical tag.\n\n> The Southern blotting technique was named after Edwin Southern who introduced the technique in 1975.\n\n## Principle\n\nThe target DNA is broken into small fragments using restriction endonucleases and is separated by [electrophoresis](\u002Fagarose-gel-electrophoresis\u002F). Following separation, the double-stranded pieces of DNA are denatured into single strands within the gel and transferred from the gel onto a blotting membrane. The membrane is then treated with a small piece of DNA or RNA called a probe, which has a complementary sequence to the target DNA.\n\nThe probe also has a radioactive atom or a fluorescent dye label, that following hybridization, permits the DNA fragment of interest to be detected from different DNA fragments present on the membrane.\n\n## Requirements\n\n1. Agarose gel\n2. Cellulose nitrate or nitrocellulose membrane filter with uniform porosity.\n3. Ethidium bromide for staining the DNA\n4. Enzymes: restriction nucleases, RNase A\n5. DNA loading buffer, TBE Buffer for electrophoresis\n\n## Steps involved in Southern blotting\n\n![ - Southern blotting technique(Image source: National Human Genome Research Institute)](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fsouthern_blot_technique.jpg)Figure: Southern blotting technique(Image source: National Human Genome Research Institute)\n\nExtraction, purification,fragmentation, and separation of target DNA\n\nDNA is extracted from the target source and is broken into small fragments using restriction endonuclease enzyme. Fragmented DNA is then electrophoresed on an [agarose gel](\u002Fagarose-gel-electrophoresis\u002F)to separate the fragments according to their molecular weights. Acrylamide gels can alternatively be used for good resolution of smaller DNA fragments (<800 bp). DNA thus obtained are double-stranded, and is therefore denatured to single-stranded DNA by dipping the gel in an alkaline solution.\n\n> Blotting refers to the transfer of the fragmented DNA sequence to the nitrocellulose membrane or nylon membrane. Although this step determines the name of this technique “Southern blotting,” the term is typically used to describe the entire procedure.\n\nBlotting\n\nThe process is done by either electroblotting or capillary blotting. A sheet of nitrocellulose membrane is placed on top of (or below, depending on the direction of the transfer) the gel and gentle pressure is applied evenly to the gel (either using suction or by placing a stack of paper towels and a weight on top of the membrane and gel), to ensure good and even contact between gel and membrane. Fragments are pulled towards the nitrocellulose filter membrane by capillary action and result in the formation of an imprint or blot of the gel. The portion of the nitrocellulose membrane, touching the gel should be gently removed using a blade.\n\nBaking\n\nThe membrane is then baked in a vacuum or regular oven at 80 °C for 2 hours or can be fixed via UV crosslinking mediated by exposure to short-wavelength UV light to permanently attach the transferred DNA to the membrane.\n\nPre hybridization and blocking\n\nPrehybridization and blocking are done to eliminate non-specific reactions. There are various kinds of blocking agents, commonly, salmon or herring sperm DNA is used for blocking the membrane surface and target DNA. In this step, the membrane is incubated in Denhardt’s solution for 1 hour or more, depending on the type of reaction. After incubating the prehybridization solution at 42°C, the heat snap chilled salmon sperm DNA is added to it at a concentration of 50 µg\u002FmL.\n\nHybridization with the probe\n\nHybridization is usually carried out in a sealed bag which will contain the Southern blot, and hybridization fluid containing the labeled probe. The time required for hybridization usually 1–16 hours depending on factors like the complexity of the probe and concentration.\n\nVisualization of the result\n\nAfter hybridization, the excess probe is washed from the membrane using a buffer, and the pattern of hybridization is visualized on X-ray film by autoradiography in the case of a radioactive or fluorescent probe, or by the development of color on the membrane if a chromogenic detection method is used.\n\n## Result Interpretation\n\nHybridization of the probe to a specific DNA fragment on the filter membrane indicates that this fragment contains DNA sequence that is complementary to the probe. A probe that has hybridized with a single fragment of DNA not being digested by restriction enzymes will result in only one band in the final blot. In case the probe binds to many of the similar sequences it will result in multiple bands.\n\nModification of the hybridization conditions (for example, increasing the hybridization temperature or decreasing salt concentration) may be used to increase specificity and decrease hybridization of the probe to sequences that are less similar.\n\n## Applications\n\nSouthern blotting is used to analyze the genome of organisms of interest in order to identify a specific sequence. Southern blot analysis can be used to:\n\n1. To study [mutation](\u002Fmutation\u002F) and gene rearrangement, this property is used to diagnose neonatal disease and genetic disease.\n2. In phylogenetic studies, recombinant DNA technology, paternity & maternity analysis, forensic studies, and personal identification.\n3. To demonstrate the presence or absence of a specific target sequence in DNA,\n4. To determine whether chromosomal integration has occurred,\n5. In immunology, the clonal rearrangements of the immunoglobulins, as well as the T Cell receptor genes, can be analyzed by Southern blotting.\n6. To study the structure of a gene or to elucidate restriction enzyme maps.\n7. To determine the copy number of transgenes etc.,\n\n**References and Further Readings**\n\n- ‘[Southern Blot’](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.genome.gov\u002Fgenetics-glossary\u002FSouthern-Blot#:~:text=Southern%20blotting%20is%20a%20laboratory,the%20surface%20of%20a%20membrane.), National Human Genome Research Institute.\n- ‘[Southern Blotting](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.mybiosource.com\u002Flearn\u002Fsouthern-blotting\u002F)‘, MyBioResource.com\n- ‘[Southern Blot](https:\u002F\u002Fwww.nature.com\u002Fwls\u002Fdefinition\u002Fsouthern-blot-289\u002F)‘, World Library of Science",[],[],[51,91],{"slug":52,"title":53,"description":54,"seoTitle":41,"seoDescription":41,"author":55,"createdDate":56,"lastUpdatedDate":57,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":41,"faq":58,"tags":89},"agarose-gel-electrophoresis","Agarose Gel Electrophoresis: Principle, Procedure, Results","Agarose gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments from 100 bp to 25 kb by size. Learn the principle, how to cast and run a gel, why supercoiled plasmid runs faster than linear DNA, and how to read a PCR gel against a DNA ladder.","Acharya Tankeshwar","2019-09-13","2026-07-17",[59,62,65,68,71,74,77,80,83,86],{"question":60,"answer":61},"Does agarose gel electrophoresis separate DNA by size or by charge?","By size. Charge determines the direction of travel, because DNA's phosphate backbone is negatively charged and every fragment therefore migrates toward the anode. But DNA has a uniform charge-to-mass ratio, so every fragment experiences the same pull per unit mass, and charge separates nothing. The sieving action of the agarose mesh does all the separating, which is why migration distance reports fragment size.",{"question":63,"answer":64},"Why does DNA move toward the anode?","The phosphate backbone of DNA carries a negative charge at every pH used in the laboratory, making DNA an anion. Anions are attracted to the positive electrode, which is the anode. Unlike proteins, DNA has no isoelectric point to consider, so it always migrates in the same direction.",{"question":66,"answer":67},"What size range can agarose gel electrophoresis resolve?","Roughly 100 base pairs to 25 kilobases, depending on the agarose concentration. Fragments smaller than about 100 bp are better resolved by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and fragments larger than about 25 kb require pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.",{"question":69,"answer":70},"Why does my plasmid preparation show three bands on the gel?","Because a circular plasmid exists in three conformations, and the gel separates by effective size rather than base-pair count. Supercoiled plasmid is tightly wound and compact, so it migrates fastest. Open circular (nicked) plasmid is a relaxed floppy loop with a large effective radius, so it snags in the mesh and migrates slowest. Linear plasmid runs in between. All three contain the same number of base pairs. Three bands from one preparation is normal, not a sign of contamination.",{"question":72,"answer":73},"How do I choose the agarose concentration?","Match the pore size to the fragment size. A low-percentage gel (around 0.5 to 0.8%) has large pores and resolves large fragments, while small fragments run through almost unimpeded. A high-percentage gel (1.5 to 2%) has small pores that resolve small fragments sharply while holding large fragments near the well. Higher percentage does not mean better resolution in general, only better resolution of smaller fragments.",{"question":75,"answer":76},"What is the difference between TAE and TBE buffer?","TAE (Tris-acetate-EDTA) has a lower buffering capacity and will exhaust during long runs, but it resolves large fragments well and the DNA recovered from a TAE gel is clean enough for downstream enzymatic work. TBE (Tris-borate-EDTA) has a much higher buffering capacity and gives sharper resolution of small fragments, but borate inhibits many enzymes and carries over into extracted DNA. Use TAE if you plan to cut the band out and use the DNA, and TBE if you only need to visualize it.",{"question":78,"answer":79},"What is a DNA ladder and why is it needed?","A DNA ladder is a mixture of DNA fragments of known sizes, run in a lane alongside the samples. It converts the height of a band into a number of base pairs. Without a ladder, the position of a band carries no information, because migration distance depends on the gel percentage, the voltage, and the run time.",{"question":81,"answer":82},"My PCR gel shows no band in the patient lane. Is that a negative result?","Only if the positive control produced a band. If the positive control is also blank, the reaction itself failed and the patient's lane carries no information. Likewise, if the negative control shows a band, the run is contaminated and no lane on that gel can be trusted. The controls are always read before the patient's sample.",{"question":84,"answer":85},"What do the dyes in the loading buffer do?","Loading dye serves three purposes. Glycerol makes the sample dense enough to sink to the bottom of the well instead of drifting into the buffer. The colour makes loading easier to see. And the tracking dyes migrate at predictable rates, marking how far the run has progressed. In a 1% agarose gel, bromophenol blue migrates at approximately the position of a 300 to 500 bp fragment and xylene cyanol at approximately 4 kb.",{"question":87,"answer":88},"Is ethidium bromide dangerous, and what can be used instead?","Ethidium bromide intercalates into DNA and is a suspect mutagen and carcinogen, so it requires gloves and regulated disposal. Safer alternatives include SYBR Gold and SYBR Green, which are highly sensitive but expensive, and methylene blue or crystal violet, which are much safer but considerably less sensitive. A separate hazard is the short-wave ultraviolet light used to visualize ethidium bromide, which nicks DNA. If the band is to be excised for cloning, use a long-wave ultraviolet or blue-light transilluminator.",[90],"electrophoresis",{"slug":92,"title":93,"description":94,"seoTitle":41,"seoDescription":41,"author":55,"createdDate":95,"lastUpdatedDate":96,"draft":45,"category":97,"image":41,"faq":98,"tags":123},"mutation","Mutation and Types of Mutations","\u003Cp>A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence. Learn the types (point, frameshift, and chromosomal), the difference between silent, missense, and nonsense mutations, and why mutations matter, including antibiotic resistance.\u003C\u002Fp>","2021-06-20","2026-08-15","general-microbiology",[99,102,105,108,111,114,117,120],{"question":100,"answer":101},"\u003Cp>What is a mutation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A mutation is a permanent change in the nucleotide (base) sequence of DNA. A cell or organism that shows the effect of a mutation is called a mutant.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":103,"answer":104},"\u003Cp>What are the main types of mutations?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By how they change the DNA, mutations are point mutations (a single base change), frameshift mutations (insertion or deletion that shifts the reading frame), and chromosomal mutations (large changes such as deletion, duplication, inversion, or translocation). They can also be grouped by cause (spontaneous or induced) and by location (germline or somatic).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":106,"answer":107},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between silent, missense, and nonsense mutations?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>All three are point mutations. A silent mutation gives the same amino acid, so the protein is unchanged. A missense mutation gives a different amino acid. A nonsense mutation creates a premature stop codon, ending the protein early.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":109,"answer":110},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a transition and a transversion?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A transition swaps a base for the same type (a purine for a purine, or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine). A transversion swaps across types (a purine for a pyrimidine, or the reverse).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":112,"answer":113},"\u003Cp>Why is a frameshift mutation usually more harmful than a point mutation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A point mutation changes at most one amino acid. A frameshift shifts the reading frame, so every codon after the mutation is read incorrectly. This usually produces a completely wrong and non-functional protein.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":115,"answer":116},"\u003Cp>How do mutations cause antibiotic resistance?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A random mutation in a bacterium can change the target of an antibiotic or help the cell remove the drug. When the antibiotic is present, that cell survives while others die, and it passes the mutation to its offspring. The antibiotic does not cause the mutation; it selects the cell that already had it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":118,"answer":119},"\u003Cp>Are all mutations harmful?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Most mutations are neutral and have no meaningful effect. Some are silent. Only a minority are harmful, and a rare few are beneficial. The beneficial ones are the raw material for evolution.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":121,"answer":122},"\u003Cp>What is an example of a mutation that causes disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Sickle cell anemia is caused by a single missense mutation in the hemoglobin gene, which changes one amino acid (glutamic acid to valine) in the protein. This one change alters the shape of red blood cells.\u003C\u002Fp>",[124],"genetic-code",{"enabled":126,"threads":127,"total":128},true,[],0,[130,136,143,150,156,161,167,172,178,181,187],{"slug":131,"name":55,"description":132,"image":133,"body":134,"postCount":135},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":137,"name":138,"description":139,"image":140,"body":141,"postCount":142},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":144,"name":145,"description":146,"image":147,"body":148,"postCount":149},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":151,"name":152,"description":146,"image":153,"body":154,"postCount":155},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":157,"name":158,"description":146,"image":41,"body":159,"postCount":160},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":162,"name":163,"description":164,"image":41,"body":165,"postCount":166},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":168,"name":169,"description":170,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":171},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":173,"name":174,"description":146,"image":175,"body":176,"postCount":177},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":179,"name":180,"description":170,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":171},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":182,"name":42,"description":183,"image":184,"body":185,"postCount":186},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":188,"name":189,"description":190,"image":191,"body":192,"postCount":171},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[194,201,207,212,217,222,226,230,234,239,243,248,252,257,262,266,270,274,278,283,287,291,295,300,304,308,312,316,321,326,330,334,338,342,346,350,354,358,362,366,370,374,378,382,386,390,394,398,403,407,411,415,419,423,427,431,435,439,443,447,451,455,459,463,467,471,474,478,481,485],{"slug":195,"name":196,"description":197,"image":198,"body":199,"postCount":200},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":202,"name":203,"description":204,"image":41,"body":205,"postCount":206},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":208,"name":209,"description":210,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":211},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":213,"name":214,"description":215,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":218,"name":219,"description":220,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":221},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":223,"name":224,"description":225,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":211},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":227,"name":228,"description":229,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":211},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":231,"name":232,"description":233,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":206},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":235,"name":236,"description":237,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":238},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":240,"name":241,"description":242,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":200},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":244,"name":245,"description":246,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":247},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":249,"name":250,"description":251,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":221},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":253,"name":254,"description":255,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":256},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":258,"name":259,"description":260,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":261},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":263,"name":264,"description":265,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":247},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":267,"name":268,"description":41,"image":41,"body":269,"postCount":160},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":271,"name":272,"description":41,"image":41,"body":273,"postCount":256},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":90,"name":275,"description":276,"image":41,"body":277,"postCount":238},"Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":279,"name":280,"description":281,"image":41,"body":282,"postCount":160},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":286,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":288,"name":289,"description":290,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":292,"name":293,"description":294,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":296,"name":297,"description":298,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":299},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":301,"name":302,"description":303,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":238},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":305,"name":306,"description":307,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":309,"name":310,"description":311,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":313,"name":314,"description":315,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":221},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":317,"name":318,"description":319,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":320},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":322,"name":323,"description":324,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":325},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":327,"name":328,"description":329,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":331,"name":332,"description":333,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":221},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":335,"name":336,"description":337,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":166},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":339,"name":340,"description":341,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":247},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":347,"name":348,"description":349,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":256},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":320},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":359,"name":360,"description":361,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":325},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":238},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":367,"name":368,"description":369,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":166},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":375,"name":376,"description":377,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":238},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":379,"name":380,"description":41,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":381},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":383,"name":384,"description":385,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":325},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":387,"name":388,"description":389,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":206},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":200},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":397,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":399,"name":400,"description":401,"image":41,"body":402,"postCount":160},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":221},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":410,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":171},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":256},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":155},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":211},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":325},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":221},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":381},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":238},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":325},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":238},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":160},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":124,"name":472,"description":473,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":238},"Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":475,"name":476,"description":477,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":479,"name":480,"description":41,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":171},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":482,"name":483,"description":484,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":216},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":486,"name":487,"description":41,"image":41,"body":41,"postCount":381},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]