[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fNBrCEfhy5kL1gmcdnYocY90E7gZeeltl3NXgo1wCnRs":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":84,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":149},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":59,"related":60,"comments":80},"saline-wet-mount-diagnosis-intestinal-parasites","Saline Wet Mount for Intestinal Parasites: Principle, Procedure, and Results","Learn how to prepare and examine a saline and iodine wet mount for intestinal parasites — trophozoites, cysts, and helminth eggs — with organism-specific results, interpretation tips, and exam mnemonics.",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2015-10-18","2026-06-30",false,"parasitology","A mother brings her 5-year-old to a district hospital in rural Nepal. The child has had loose stools and abdominal cramping for two weeks. The doctor suspects giardiasis or amoebiasis but wants to confirm before prescribing metronidazole. The laboratory technician takes a pea-sized portion of the fresh stool sample, mixes it with a drop of normal saline on a glass slide, and within five minutes has an answer: motile trophozoites with a characteristic tumbling motion — *Giardia lamblia*.\n\nThis is the saline wet mount — the fastest, cheapest, and most widely available diagnostic test for intestinal parasitic infections. No staining required, no concentration step needed, no special equipment beyond a standard microscope. Its power and its limitation are the same thing: it works best when the parasite burden is high enough to find in a small sample, and when trophozoites are present and motile.\n\n![Egg of Ascaris in Wet Mount - Egg ofAscarisin wet mount](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FEgg-of-Ascaris-in-Wet-Mount-300x182.jpg)Figure: Egg of Ascaris in wet mount\n\nGastro-intestinal infestations by parasites (protozoan\u002Fhelminths) are primarily diagnosed by detecting live motile trophozoites (for protozoans); cyst (inactive dormant stage of protozoa) or eggs (in case of helminths) in the stool. Eggs of helminths are often easier to find and identify because of their size and their distinctive morphological features. These agents are identified based on their morphological\u002Fstaining (For eggs of helminth; **bile stained or not bile stained**) characteristics.\n\n![Trophozoites and Cyst of Giardia lamblia - Trophozoite (left) and Cyst ofGiardia lamblia (right)](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fimages.jpg)Figure: Trophozoite (left) and Cyst of *Giardia lamblia* (right)\n\n**Saline wet mount** is made by mixing a small quantity (about 2 mg) of feces in a drop of saline placed on a clean glass slide. The smear is then examined under a microscope. Saline wet mount is used for the detection of trophozoites and cysts of protozoa, and eggs and larvae of helminths. It is particularly useful for the detection of live motile trophozoites of *E. histolytica*, *Giardia lamblia*, and *Balantidium coli.*\n\nIt is usually more efficient for laboratories to do a simple concentration to avoid overlooking parasites that may be present in very small numbers. A modification of the direct smear procedure, the [Kato-Katz technique,](\u002Fkato-katz-technique-principle-procedure-results\u002F) is especially useful for field surveys aimed to detect schistosome or soil-transmitted nematode (roundworm, whipworm, and hookworm). It also gives an estimation of the intensity of infection.\n\n## Why Two Preparations? Saline vs Iodine\n\nThe standard wet mount uses **two drops side by side on the same slide** — one in saline, one in iodine. Each serves a distinct purpose that the other cannot:\n\n|  | Saline wet mount | Iodine (Lugol's) wet mount |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| **Primary purpose** | Detect motile trophozoites | Reveal internal cyst structure |\n| **Best for** | *E. histolytica*, *Giardia*, *B. coli* trophozoites; helminth eggs and larvae | Protozoan cysts (glycogen mass, nuclei stained brown-yellow) |\n| **Organisms killed?** | No — motility preserved | **Yes** — iodine kills; no motility |\n| **Cyst internal detail** | Poor — low contrast | Good — glycogen stains brown, nuclei visible |\n| **Helminth eggs** | Good morphology | Less useful than saline |\n\n**The clinical workflow:** Always examine the saline preparation first for motility, then switch to the iodine preparation for structural identification of any organisms found.\n\n## Uses of Direct Wet Mount\n\n1. To assess the worm burden of patient\n2. To provide a quick diagnosis of the heavily infected specimen\n3. To check organism motility (primarily protozoan trophozoites)\n4. To diagnose organisms that might not be seen from permanent stain methods\n\n## Reagents and equipment\n\n1. Normal saline (0.85% NaCl);  Lugol’s Iodine\n2. Glass slides\n3. Coverslips\n4. Pipettes\n5. Gloves\n6. Microscope\n\n## Procedure\n\n1. With a wax pencil or other marker, write the patient’s name or identification number and the date at the left-hand end of a clean microscope slide.\n\n![](http:\u002F\u002F4.bp.blogspot.com\u002F-GNRejSJaszw\u002FUTBBb1ijgAI\u002FAAAAAAAABGQ\u002FyE1wxPQeCSc\u002Fs320\u002FDirect+fecal+smear+wet+mount+preparations.bmp)1\\. Place a drop of saline in the center of the left half of the slide and place a drop of iodine solution in the center of the right half of the slide (Fig .1). (Note. Iodine wet mount preparations are most useful for protozoa, less so for helminths.)\n\n2. With an applicator stick or match, pick up a small portion of faeces (approximately 2 mg which is about the size of a match head) and add it to the drop of saline: add a similar portion to the drop of iodine. Mix the faeces with the drops to form suspensions (Fig. 2).\n\n3. Cover each drop with a coverslip by holding the coverslip at an angle, touching the edge of the drop, and gently lowering the coverslip onto the slide so that air bubbles are not produced (Fig. 3).\n\n![Suitable Wet Mount Preparation (Img Source: DPDx) - Suitable Wet Mount Preparation (Img Source: DPDx)](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FWetMount_DPDx-300x143.jpg)Figure: Suitable Wet Mount Preparation (Img Source: DPDx)\n\n> Ideal preparations containing 2 mg of feces are uniform – not so thick that fecal debris can obscure organisms, nor so thin that blank spaces are present. The mount should be just thick enough that newspaper print can be read through the slide.\n\n4. If desired the coverslip (s) can be sealed using petroleum jelly and Paraffin oil or other suitable sealing preparations. Sealing the coverslip keeps organisms from moving when using oil immersion objectives and prevents the preparation from drying out.\n\n## Examination\n\n![Scanning the stained smear (Image source: dpdx) - Scanning the stained smear (Image source: dpdx)](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fscanning_dpdx-300x153.jpg)Figure: Scanning the stained smear (Image source: dpdx)\n\n5. Examine the specimen with the low power objective (10x) and low light. Begin at one corner of the smear and systematically examine (either up and down or laterally) successive adjacent swaths with the low power microscope. Low power examination includes an entire area of 22 by 22 mm coverslip preparation (both saline and iodine).\n6. When a parasite-like object comes into view, switch to higher magnification to see the more detailed morphology of the object in question. It should be more closely examined and identified under high power (40x) objective. High dry power examination should include at least one-third of the coverslip area (both saline and iodine).\n\n## Results\n\n![Wet Mount Smear of Stool showing E. histolytica](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FE-histolytica-300x189.jpg)Figure: Wet Mount Smear of Stool showing *E. histolytica*\n\nResults from the direct smear examination should often be considered presumptive; however, some organisms could be definitely identified (*Giardia lamblia* cysts and *Entamoeba coli* cysts, helminth eggs, and larvae, *Isospora belli* oocysts). These reports should be considered “preliminary”, while the final report would be available after the results of concentration and permanent stained smear were available.\n\n## What You Find: Organism-Specific Results\n\n### On Saline Wet Mount\n\n| Organism | Stage found | Key identifying feature |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| *Entamoeba histolytica* | Trophozoite | Directional, progressive motility using pseudopodia; ingested RBCs inside cytoplasm (pathognomonic) |\n| *Entamoeba coli* | Trophozoite | Sluggish, non-progressive motility; no ingested RBCs; larger than *E. histolytica* |\n| *Giardia lamblia* | Trophozoite | \"Falling leaf\" or tumbling motility; pear-shaped, bilateral symmetry visible |\n| *Balantidium coli* | Trophozoite | Largest human intestinal protozoan; rapid spiral movement; kidney-shaped macronucleus |\n| *Ascaris lumbricoides* | Egg (fertilised) | Oval, bile-stained brown-yellow, mammillated outer coat; unfertilised eggs longer and thinner |\n| Hookworm | Egg | Oval, thin-shelled, colourless; segmented embryo inside; identical for *Ancylostoma* and *Necator* |\n| *Trichuris trichiura* | Egg | Barrel-shaped with prominent bipolar plugs (like a barrel with corks) — unmistakable |\n| *Hymenolepis nana* | Egg | Round, thin-shelled, with polar filaments between inner and outer membranes |\n| *Taenia* spp. | Proglottid or egg | Eggs spherical, radially striated; species differentiation requires proglottid examination |\n| *Strongyloides stercoralis* | Rhabditiform larva | Larvae (not eggs) in stool; short buccal cavity distinguishes from hookworm larva |\n\n### On Iodine Wet Mount\n\n| Organism | Cyst features on iodine |\n| --- | --- |\n| *Entamoeba histolytica* | 1–4 nuclei; chromatoid bars (blunt ends); glycogen mass stains brown |\n| *Entamoeba coli* | Up to 8 nuclei; chromatoid bars have splintered ends |\n| *Giardia lamblia* | Oval cyst, 4 nuclei; median bodies; longitudinal fibres visible |\n| *Balantidium coli* | Large cyst, single large macronucleus |\n\n**The single most important result to look for:** *Entamoeba histolytica* trophozoites with ingested red blood cells in the cytoplasm — this distinguishes invasive *E. histolytica* from non-pathogenic *E. dispar* (which looks identical morphologically but does not ingest RBCs) and from *E. coli* (non-pathogenic commensal).\n\n## Where Students Actually Get Confused\n\n**1. \"Iodine wet mount shows motility.\"** Iodine kills trophozoites immediately — no motility is seen. The iodine preparation is for structural identification only. Always examine the saline preparation first if motility is the diagnostic clue you need.\n\n**2. \"E. histolytica and E. dispar look different on wet mount.\"** They do not. Both are morphologically indistinguishable on saline and iodine wet mount. The only wet mount clue to *E. histolytica* specifically is the presence of ingested RBCs in the cytoplasm — this indicates active invasion and strongly suggests *E. histolytica*. Definitive species differentiation requires stool antigen EIA or PCR.\n\n**3. \"A negative wet mount excludes parasitic infection.\"** Direct wet mount examines roughly 2 mg of stool — a tiny fraction of the total specimen. In low-burden infections, parasites may not be in that 2 mg. The wet mount is a preliminary screening test; results should be considered presumptive. Concentration techniques and permanent stained smears are always recommended when suspicion remains.\n\n**4. \"Saline and normal saline are different things.\"** Normal saline (0.85% NaCl) is exactly what the procedure uses. The tonicity matches that of the organisms and preserves their morphology. Using tap water causes osmotic lysis of cysts; using hypertonic saline distorts morphology.\n\n**5. \"The smear can be any thickness.\"** The standard teaching is that the smear should be thick enough to see but thin enough to read newsprint through the slide. Too thick — fecal debris obscures organisms. Too thin — organisms too spread out to find efficiently.\n\n## Key Exam Facts in One Table\n\n| Fact | Detail | Memory hook |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Stool volume used | \\~2 mg (size of a match head) | Small portion — mix thoroughly |\n| Saline concentration | 0.85% NaCl (normal saline) | Isotonic — preserves morphology |\n| Saline purpose | Detect motile trophozoites; helminth eggs | Motion first |\n| Iodine purpose | Reveal cyst structure (kills motility) | Structure second |\n| E. histolytica hallmark | Ingested RBCs in trophozoite cytoplasm | RBC ingestion = invasion = E. histolytica |\n| Giardia trophozoite motility | \"Falling leaf\" \u002F tumbling pattern | Bilateral symmetry + flagella |\n| Trichuris egg shape | Barrel-shaped with bipolar plugs | Unmistakable — \"barrel with corks\" |\n| Strongyloides in stool | Rhabditiform larvae (not eggs) | Only helminth to appear as larvae in fresh stool |\n| Result status | Preliminary only | Confirm with concentration + permanent stain |\n| Processing time for liquid stool | Within 30 minutes | Trophozoites degenerate rapidly |\n\n## Limitations\n\n1. Once Iodine is added to the preparation, the organism will be killed and motility will be lost.\n2. Oil immersion examination is not recommended (organism morphology is not that clear)\n\n## Self-Check Questions\n\n1. You are examining a saline wet mount and see a large amoeboid trophozoite with rapid directional movement and red blood cells visible inside its cytoplasm. What organism is this, and what does the RBC ingestion indicate?\n2. You add iodine to the right half of the slide and examine it first. You see brown-stained cysts but no motility. A colleague says the specimen is negative for trophozoites — do you agree?\n3. What is the correct saline concentration for wet mount preparation and why does the concentration matter?\n4. A wet mount of a liquid stool collected 3 hours ago is negative. The clinician is surprised given the clinical picture. What is the most likely reason for the false-negative result?\n5. On iodine mount you see a cyst with 8 nuclei. Which organism does this suggest, and is it pathogenic?\n\n**Answers**\n\n1. *Entamoeba histolytica* trophozoite. Ingested RBCs in the cytoplasm indicate active tissue invasion; this distinguishes *E. histolytica* from morphologically identical but non-pathogenic *E. dispar*, which does not ingest RBCs.\n2. No — *iodine kills trophozoites immediately*. No motility will be seen on the iodine preparation regardless of whether trophozoites are present. The saline preparation must be examined for motility; the iodine preparation is used only for cyst structure.\n3. 0.85% NaCl (normal saline). This concentration is isotonic with the organisms and preserves their morphology. Tap water causes osmotic lysis; hypertonic saline distorts and shrinks organisms.\n4. The liquid stool should have been processed within 30 minutes of collection. At 3 hours, any trophozoites present have degenerated and are no longer identifiable. Cysts and eggs may still be detectable, but trophozoite-stage organisms are lost.\n5. *Entamoeba coli* — up to 8 nuclei in a cyst is characteristic. *E. coli* is a non-pathogenic commensal of the human colon; it does not require treatment but its presence confirms faecal contamination of the food\u002Fwater source.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Garcia, L. S. (2016). *Diagnostic Medical Parasitology* (6th ed.). ASM Press.\n2. Cheesbrough, M. (2006). *District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries* (2nd ed., Part 1). Cambridge University Press.\n3. World Health Organization. (2012). *Bench aids for the diagnosis of intestinal parasites* (2nd ed.). WHO. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fapps.who.int\u002Firis\u002Fbitstream\u002Fhandle\u002F10665\u002F37323\u002F9789241544764_eng.pdf>\n4. Demeke, G., Fenta, A., & Dilnessa, T. (2021). Evaluation of wet mount and concentration techniques of stool examination for intestinal parasites identification at Debre Markos Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Ethiopia. *Infection and Drug Resistance*, 14, 1357–1362. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.2147\u002FIDR.S307683>\n5. Khanna, V., Tilak, K., Rasheed, S., & Mukhopadhyay, C. (2014). Identification and preservation of intestinal parasites using methylene blue-glycerol mount: a new approach to stool microscopy. *Journal of Parasitology Research*, 2014, 672018. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1155\u002F2014\u002F672018>\n6. CDC – DPDx: Laboratory Identification of Parasites of Public Health Concern. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdc.gov\u002Fdpdx\u002Findex.html>",[50,53,56],{"question":51,"answer":52},"What is the difference between a saline and an iodine wet mount?","A saline wet mount uses 0.85% NaCl and preserves motility, making it ideal for detecting live trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Balantidium coli, as well as helminth eggs and larvae. An iodine (Lugol's) wet mount kills organisms but stains glycogen masses and nuclei, revealing the internal structure of protozoan cysts. Both preparations are made side-by-side on the same slide and examined together.",{"question":54,"answer":55},"How do you identify Entamoeba histolytica on saline wet mount?","E. histolytica trophozoites show directional, progressive motility using pseudopodia. The diagnostic hallmark is the presence of ingested red blood cells inside the cytoplasm, which indicates active tissue invasion. This distinguishes E. histolytica from the morphologically identical but non-pathogenic E. dispar (which does not ingest RBCs) and from E. coli (sluggish motility, no RBC ingestion).",{"question":57,"answer":58},"Why must liquid stool be examined within 30 minutes for wet mount?","Trophozoites are fragile and motile only in fresh specimens. They begin to degenerate after 30 minutes, losing motility and becoming morphologically unidentifiable. After this window, trophozoite diagnosis is unreliable. Cysts and helminth eggs are more stable and can be detected for up to 24 hours in formed stool.",[],[61],{"slug":62,"title":63,"description":64,"seoTitle":65,"seoDescription":66,"author":43,"createdDate":67,"lastUpdatedDate":68,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":69,"tags":79},"kato-katz-technique-principle-procedure-results","Kato-Katz Technique: Principle, Procedure, EPG Calculation, and Results","How to perform the Kato-Katz technique for helminth diagnosis — principle, step-by-step procedure, egg-per-gram (EPG) calculation, WHO infection intensity thresholds, and when to use it over formal-ether concentration.","Kato-Katz Technique: Procedure, EPG Calculation, and Interpretation","Perform a Kato-Katz thick smear, identify helminth eggs, calculate eggs per gram, apply infection-intensity thresholds, and recognize method limitations.","2016-05-24","2026-07-18",[70,73,76],{"question":71,"answer":72},"What is the Kato-Katz technique used for?","The Kato-Katz technique is used for qualitative and quantitative diagnosis of intestinal helminthic infections — specifically soil-transmitted helminths (Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, hookworm) and Schistosoma species. It presses a standardised volume of stool (41.7 mg) through a mesh screen onto a slide, covers it with glycerol-malachite green cellophane, and allows microscopic identification and counting of helminth eggs. The egg count is multiplied by 24 to give eggs per gram (EPG) of stool — a measure of infection intensity.",{"question":74,"answer":75},"Why must Kato-Katz slides for hookworm be read within 30-60 minutes?","Hookworm eggs have thin shells that are progressively dissolved by the glycerol in the cellophane during the clearing process. After 60 minutes, the shell contents become unrecognizable, and the eggs appear as empty outlines or disappear entirely. Ascaris, Trichuris, and Schistosoma eggs have thicker shells and are stable for up to 24 hours, but hookworm diagnosis requires immediate slide reading.",{"question":77,"answer":78},"How is EPG calculated from a Kato-Katz slide?","EPG (eggs per gram) = number of eggs counted on the slide × 24. The multiplier 24 comes from dividing 1,000 mg (1 gram) by the template volume of 41.7 mg. For example, if you count 50 Ascaris eggs, EPG = 50 × 24 = 1,200 EPG, which classifies as a light infection (WHO threshold: light = 1–4,999 EPG for Ascaris). Always check the kit insert — some templates use slightly different volumes.",[],{"enabled":81,"threads":82,"total":83},true,[],0,[85,91,98,105,111,116,122,127,133,136,143],{"slug":86,"name":43,"description":87,"image":88,"body":89,"postCount":90},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":92,"name":93,"description":94,"image":95,"body":96,"postCount":97},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":99,"name":100,"description":101,"image":102,"body":103,"postCount":104},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":106,"name":107,"description":101,"image":108,"body":109,"postCount":110},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":112,"name":113,"description":101,"image":42,"body":114,"postCount":115},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":117,"name":118,"description":119,"image":42,"body":120,"postCount":121},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":123,"name":124,"description":125,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":126},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":128,"name":129,"description":101,"image":130,"body":131,"postCount":132},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":134,"name":135,"description":125,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":126},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":137,"name":138,"description":139,"image":140,"body":141,"postCount":142},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":144,"name":145,"description":146,"image":147,"body":148,"postCount":126},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[150,157,163,168,173,178,182,186,190,195,199,204,208,213,218,222,226,230,235,240,244,248,252,257,261,265,269,273,278,283,287,291,295,299,303,307,311,315,319,323,327,331,335,339,343,347,351,355,360,364,368,372,376,380,384,388,392,396,400,404,408,412,416,420,424,428,432,436,439,443],{"slug":151,"name":152,"description":153,"image":154,"body":155,"postCount":156},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":158,"name":159,"description":160,"image":42,"body":161,"postCount":162},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":164,"name":165,"description":166,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":167},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":169,"name":170,"description":171,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":174,"name":175,"description":176,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":179,"name":180,"description":181,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":167},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":183,"name":184,"description":185,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":167},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":187,"name":188,"description":189,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":162},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":191,"name":192,"description":193,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":196,"name":197,"description":198,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":200,"name":201,"description":202,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":205,"name":206,"description":207,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":209,"name":210,"description":211,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":212},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":214,"name":215,"description":216,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":217},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":219,"name":220,"description":221,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":223,"name":224,"description":42,"image":42,"body":225,"postCount":115},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":227,"name":228,"description":42,"image":42,"body":229,"postCount":212},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":231,"name":232,"description":233,"image":42,"body":234,"postCount":194},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":236,"name":237,"description":238,"image":42,"body":239,"postCount":115},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":241,"name":242,"description":243,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":245,"name":246,"description":247,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":249,"name":250,"description":251,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":253,"name":254,"description":255,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":256},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":258,"name":259,"description":260,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":262,"name":263,"description":264,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":266,"name":267,"description":268,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":270,"name":271,"description":272,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":274,"name":275,"description":276,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":277},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":279,"name":280,"description":281,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":286,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":288,"name":289,"description":290,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":292,"name":293,"description":294,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":121},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":296,"name":297,"description":298,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":300,"name":301,"description":302,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":304,"name":305,"description":306,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":308,"name":309,"description":310,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":212},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":277},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":324,"name":325,"description":326,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":330,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":121},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":332,"name":333,"description":334,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":338},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":340,"name":341,"description":342,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":344,"name":345,"description":346,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":162},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":352,"name":353,"description":354,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":356,"name":357,"description":358,"image":42,"body":359,"postCount":115},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":361,"name":362,"description":363,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":365,"name":366,"description":367,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":369,"name":370,"description":371,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":373,"name":374,"description":375,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":126},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":212},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":110},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":387,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":167},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":397,"name":398,"description":399,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":401,"name":402,"description":403,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":338},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":405,"name":406,"description":407,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":409,"name":410,"description":411,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":413,"name":414,"description":415,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":423,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":425,"name":426,"description":427,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":437,"name":438,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":126},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":172},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":338},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]