[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fBh5r4LQ10bQeXCdqEWPU13dP9ynN5WINS67lMb1SIi0":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":228,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":289},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":49,"related":51,"comments":224},"running-a-microbiology-laboratory","Running a Microbiology Laboratory: How the Whole Lab Works Together","\u003Cp>What it takes to run a microbiology laboratory, the facility, workflow from specimen to report, safety, equipment, and the quality system that governs it all, with a guide to each part.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-09-07",false,"general-microbiology","A single culture result depends on far more than the test that produced it. It depends on a laboratory laid out so work does not cross-contaminate, a specimen collected and transported correctly, staff trained to read what grew, equipment that was working and decontaminated, and a quality system that governs every step from the request form to the report. Running a microbiology laboratory means holding all of that together. This guide is the map: how the parts of a laboratory fit into one working whole, and where to read about each in detail.\n\n## What it takes to run a laboratory: four pillars\n\nA functioning microbiology laboratory rests on four things, and every operational topic belongs to one of them:\n\n1. **A facility** designed so that work flows safely and without cross-contamination.\n2. **People and equipment**, trained staff and maintained, decontaminated instruments.\n3. **A workflow** that carries a specimen from request to reported result.\n4. **A quality system** that governs all three, so results can be trusted.\n\nThe rest of this guide takes each pillar in turn, links to the detailed articles, and then follows a single specimen through the laboratory to show how the pillars connect in practice.\n\n### Pillar 1: the facility\n\nBefore any specimen arrives, the laboratory has to be built for the work. A microbiology laboratory is laid out on one master principle, unidirectional flow from clean areas to dirty areas, with functional zones (reception, media preparation, culture, incubation, reading, washing and waste) arranged so work never backtracks, and with safety and containment built into the surfaces, airflow, and room layout. How a laboratory is designed and why, including biosafety-cabinet placement and the separate design a molecular laboratory needs, is covered in [microbiology laboratory design and layout](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmicrobiology-laboratory-design-and-layout\u002F).\n\nSafety and containment are part of the facility. The laboratory's biosafety level sets how robustly it is built and how work is handled; the biosafety cabinet, personal protective equipment, and waste management protect staff and environment. These are covered in [biosafety levels](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fprimary-bio-safety-levels-and-agents-of-disease\u002F), the [biological safety cabinet](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fbiological-safety-cabinet-bsc-types-working-mechanism\u002F), [personal protective equipment](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fpersonal-protective-equipment-ppe\u002F), [laboratory waste management](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fhospital-and-laboratory-waste-management\u002F), and the [laboratory safety rules](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmicrobiology-laboratory-safety-rules-procedure\u002F).\n\n### Pillar 2: people and equipment\n\nA laboratory runs on trained people and working instruments. Staff competence is part of the test system, especially in microbiology, where so much depends on correctly reading a plate or a stain; competence is assessed and documented as part of the quality system. The core instruments, incubators to grow cultures, [centrifuges](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fcentrifuge-parts-types-handling\u002F), the [biosafety cabinet](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fbiological-safety-cabinet-bsc-types-working-mechanism\u002F), and the [incubator](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Flaboratory-incubator-principle-parts-types-and-uses\u002F), must be maintained, monitored, and, crucially, decontaminated and sterilized between uses.\n\nDecontamination is itself a pillar of microbiology practice: reusable equipment and contaminated waste are sterilized, most often by autoclaving, before reuse or disposal. The methods, moist heat and the [autoclave](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fautoclave-principle-procedure-types-and-uses\u002F), dry heat, filtration, and radiation, are covered in the [sterilization and disinfection](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fsterilization-and-disinfection-methods\u002F) articles.\n\nWhere a laboratory has high volumes, much of this work is automated, from media preparation to identification and susceptibility, up to fully integrated systems. The whole picture of what can be automated and how is covered in [automation in the microbiology laboratory](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fautomation-in-microbiology-laboratory\u002F).\n\n### Pillar 3: the workflow, following a specimen\n\nThe clearest way to see a laboratory working is to follow a specimen through it, because the workflow is what ties the facility, people, and equipment together into a result. The journey has three phases, and, importantly, most errors happen in the first and last, not in the test itself.\n\n**Pre-analytical (before the test).** It begins with the clinician's request. The [requisition form](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Flaboratory-requisition-form-microbiology\u002F) tells the laboratory what to do and what clinical question to answer; the specimen is collected and transported correctly; and on arrival it is checked and either accepted or rejected against [specimen rejection criteria](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Frejection-criteria-for-microbiological-specimens\u002F). This phase is the largest source of laboratory error, which is why the request form and specimen quality matter as much as the test.\n\n**Analytical (the test).** The specimen is inoculated onto media, incubated, examined, and the organism identified and tested for susceptibility. This is the bench work the rest of the site's technique articles cover, and where day-to-day quality control operates.\n\n**Post-analytical (after the test).** The result is interpreted, recorded, and reported, and any urgent finding is communicated immediately. Handling of urgent results, [critical (panic) values](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fcritical-panic-values-microbiology\u002F), is part of this phase; a correct result that reaches the clinician too late has failed the patient.\n\nThe workflow is a one-way path from request to report, and the laboratory's design (pillar 1) is what makes that path run cleanly.\n\n### Pillar 4: the quality system\n\nNone of the first three pillars produces trustworthy results without a quality system governing them. Quality control checks that each test is working; quality assurance is the wider system that makes the whole process reliable across all three phases; the quality management system is the documented framework that organizes it; and accreditation is the independent confirmation that it all works. How these fit together, and the day-to-day quality-control activities, is covered in the [quality control in the microbiology laboratory](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fquality-control-microbiology-laboratory\u002F) overview.\n\nTwo parts of the quality system are worth naming here because they run through everything above. The laboratory's procedures are written as controlled [standard operating procedures (SOPs)](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fstandard-operating-procedure-sop-microbiology\u002F), which make every task reproducible; and the whole system can be independently recognized through [laboratory accreditation](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Flaboratory-accreditation-microbiology-iso-15189-nabl\u002F) against a standard such as ISO 15189. The quality system is not a separate activity; it is the discipline that turns a facility full of equipment and staff into a laboratory whose results can be relied on.\n\n## How the pillars connect\n\nThe four pillars are not separate departments; they are one system. The facility (pillar 1) makes the workflow (pillar 3) run cleanly. The people and equipment (pillar 2) do the work, governed by the quality system (pillar 4). A specimen's journey passes through all four: it is received in a facility designed for it, handled by trained staff on maintained equipment, moved along a one-way workflow, and checked at every step by the quality system. Weakness in any one pillar shows up as an unreliable result, which is why running a laboratory means attending to all four, not just the bench.\n\n## How to remember\n\n- **Four pillars: facility, people and equipment, workflow, quality.** Every operational topic belongs to one of them. A laboratory is only as good as its weakest pillar.\n- **Follow the specimen: request → collection → reception → bench → report.** The workflow is the spine that connects everything, and it runs one way.\n- **Most errors are pre- and post-analytical.** Not in the test, but in the request, the specimen, and the reporting. This is why the quality system reaches beyond the bench.\n- **The facility makes the workflow clean; the quality system makes it trustworthy.** Design does infection control by layout; the quality system does reliability by governance. Neither is optional.\n\n## Key facts\n\n| Pillar | What it covers | Read more |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Facility | Layout, unidirectional flow, zoning, containment | Laboratory design and layout; biosafety levels; BSC; PPE; waste; safety rules |\n| People and equipment | Trained staff; maintained, decontaminated instruments | Incubator; centrifuge; sterilization\u002Fautoclave; automation |\n| Workflow | Specimen journey: pre-analytical, analytical, post-analytical | Requisition form; rejection criteria; critical values |\n| Quality | QC, QA, QMS, accreditation governing it all | QC overview; SOPs; accreditation |\n| Key principle | Most errors are pre- and post-analytical, not in the test | (see workflow) |\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n**\"Running a lab is mainly about doing the tests well.\"** The test is one phase of one pillar. A laboratory also needs a facility designed against contamination, trained staff and maintained equipment, a controlled workflow, and a quality system, and most errors happen outside the test itself, in the request, specimen handling, and reporting.\n\n**\"The quality system is separate paperwork.\"** It is the discipline that governs all the other pillars. SOPs make the work reproducible, QC and QA make it reliable, and accreditation confirms it independently. Without the quality system, a well-equipped lab still cannot guarantee its results.\n\n**\"Facility design is a one-time construction issue, not a daily concern.\"** The layout determines every day whether work flows cleanly and safely. Unidirectional flow, zoning, and biosafety-cabinet placement prevent contamination and protect staff continuously; a poorly designed lab fights its staff on every shift.\n\n**\"Most laboratory errors are technical mistakes at the bench.\"** The majority are pre-analytical (wrong or poorly labeled request, bad specimen) and post-analytical (reporting), not analytical. This is the single most important fact about laboratory quality, and why the request form and reporting matter as much as the culture.\n\n## References\n\n1. World Health Organization. *Laboratory Quality Management System: Handbook.* Geneva: World Health Organization.\n2. World Health Organization. *Laboratory Biosafety Manual.* 4th ed. Geneva: WHO; 2020.\n3. Tille PM. *Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology.* 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.\n4. Leber AL, editor. *Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook.* 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016. doi:10.1128\u002F9781683670438.CMPH",[],[50],"laboratory-management",[52,59,86,117,126,134,177,201],{"slug":53,"title":54,"description":55,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":56,"image":42,"faq":57,"tags":58},"microbiology-laboratory-design-and-layout","Microbiology Laboratory Design and Layout: How a Lab Is Organized and Why","\u003Cp>How a microbiology laboratory is laid out, the unidirectional clean-to-dirty workflow, zoning, biosafety cabinet placement, and the design principles that keep work safe and contamination-free.\u003C\u002Fp>","lab-equipment",[],[50],{"slug":60,"title":61,"description":62,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":63,"lastUpdatedDate":64,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":65,"tags":84},"primary-bio-safety-levels-and-agents-of-disease","Biosafety Levels 1 to 4: Risk Groups, Containment Requirements","What separates BSL1, BSL2, BSL3, and BSL4, how risk groups map to containment levels, why a TB slide and a TB culture require different levels, and how Category A transport designations differ from laboratory BSL.","2013-08-01","2026-08-25",[66,69,72,75,78,81],{"question":67,"answer":68},"Why does the same organism sometimes require different biosafety levels?","\u003Cp>Biosafety level assignment depends on both the organism and what you're doing with it. The critical factor is the potential exposure route and the likelihood of an accident producing that exposure. A heat-fixed, stained \u003Cem>Mycobacterium tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fem> on a slide poses almost no inhalation risk and might be handled at BSL2; an active \u003Cem>M. tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fem> culture produces aerosols and requires BSL3.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":70,"answer":71},"What is the primary difference between BSL2 and BSL3?","BSL2 is for organisms transmissible by contact, ingestion, or needle stick, managed with biological safety cabinets and standard precautions. BSL3 is for organisms primarily transmitted by inhalation and requiring respiratory protection and negative-pressure facilities.",{"question":73,"answer":74},"Why is respiratory protection required at BSL3 but not BSL2?","At BSL3, the primary exposure route is inhalation (aerosol), so the organism can potentially bypass the physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes) that BSL2 precautions target. Respiratory protection defends against that specific route.",{"question":76,"answer":77},"Is a Category A organism always BSL4?","No. Category A is a transport designation (required by IATA\u002FDOT for shipping dangerous goods), not a laboratory containment level. Some Category A organisms are BSL3, some are BSL4, and others fall into different categories depending on their transmission risk and available treatments.",{"question":79,"answer":80},"\u003Cp>What would happen if \u003Cem>Mycobacterium tuberculosis \u003C\u002Fem>were misassigned to BSL1?\u003C\u002Fp>","Staff and students working with active cultures would be exposed to aerosol inhalation of TB with no respiratory protection and no negative-pressure containment. This has historically resulted in occupational TB infections among laboratory personnel.",{"question":82,"answer":83},"Why does BSL4 exist if some organisms in it are less lethal than BSL3 organisms?","BSL4 is not defined by lethality alone; it's defined by the combination of high or unknown transmissibility plus no vaccine or established treatment. An organism that might spread easily and might be lethal, with no defenses available, justifies maximum containment even if its documented case fatality rate is lower than some BSL3 organisms.",[85],"biosafety-levels",{"slug":87,"title":88,"description":89,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":90,"createdDate":91,"lastUpdatedDate":92,"draft":45,"category":93,"image":42,"faq":94,"tags":116},"biological-safety-cabinet-bsc-types-working-mechanism","Biological Safety Cabinet Classes I, II, and III: Which Class for Which Organism","How Class I, II, and III biosafety cabinets differ in airflow and what each actually protects, which class is required at each biosafety level, the four Class II types explained, and why a laminar airflow cabinet must never be used for infectious work.","Nisha Rijal","2019-12-05","2026-07-23","bacteriology",[95,98,101,104,107,110,113],{"question":96,"answer":97},"When do I need a biosafety cabinet, and when is open-bench work okay?","BSL1 work does not require a cabinet; open-bench work with proper handwashing and PPE is acceptable. BSL2 work requires a Class II cabinet for aerosol-generating procedures; routine non-aerosol work can be done on the open bench. BSL3 and BSL4 work require a cabinet (Class II or III depending on the organism). The biosafety level of your laboratory and the risk group of the organism determine what you need.",{"question":99,"answer":100},"What is the difference between Class I, Class II, and Class III cabinets?","Class I protects the worker and environment but not the product (room air flows over the work). Class II protects the worker, environment, and product (inward airflow, downward laminar flow, HEPA exhaust) and is the standard for BSL2\u002F3 work. Class III provides maximum containment with a totally enclosed cabinet and is used for RG4 agents at BSL4. The more you need to protect, the higher the class.",{"question":102,"answer":103},"Can I use a Class I cabinet for BSL2 work?","No. Using Class I for BSL2 (RG2 organisms) is a regulatory violation and a containment failure. Class II is required for BSL2 because RG2 organisms need product protection that Class I does not provide. Cost or equipment availability does not override this requirement.",{"question":105,"answer":106},"What is the difference between Type A2, Type B1, and Type B2 cabinets?","Type A2 recirculates 70% of air within the cabinet and exhausts 30% to the room; it is the workhorse for most BSL2\u002F3 work. Type B1 recirculates 30% and exhausts 70% to a hard duct; it is used when volatile chemicals or greater containment is needed. Type B2 exhausts 100% to a hard duct; it provides maximum containment but uses more energy. For most BSL2\u002F3 work, Type A2 is sufficient and is the standard choice.",{"question":108,"answer":109},"How often does a biosafety cabinet need to be certified?","Most regulations require annual recertification (some require every 6 months for heavily used cabinets). Certification verifies that the cabinet's airflow, HEPA filter integrity, and containment function are still adequate. Using a cabinet that hasn't been recently certified is a containment failure. Know the certification date before you work.",{"question":111,"answer":112},"What is the difference between a biosafety cabinet and a laminar airflow cabinet?","A BSC protects the worker from biohazards with inward airflow drawing aerosols away from the worker. A laminar airflow cabinet protects the product from contamination with outward airflow that pushes air toward the worker. Never use a laminar airflow cabinet for pathogenic work. For the full comparison, see Laminar Airflow Cabinet: Types and Working Principle.",{"question":114,"answer":115},"Is a Class II cabinet enough for all BSL3 work?","Class II is acceptable for most BSL3 organisms, but some highly hazardous RG3 agents may require Class III depending on institutional policy and the specific organism. Check your lab's SOPs and your biosafety officer's recommendations for agents on the borderline between Class II and Class III.",[85],{"slug":118,"title":119,"description":120,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":121,"createdDate":122,"lastUpdatedDate":123,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":124,"tags":125},"personal-protective-equipment-ppe","Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in the Laboratory: Types, Selection, Donning, and Doffing","Which PPE to wear for which laboratory hazard, how requirements change from BSL-1 to BSL-3, why an N95 needs fit testing and a surgical mask does not, and the correct order for putting on and removing PPE safely.","Sushmita Baniya","2022-06-07","2026-09-04",[],[],{"slug":127,"title":128,"description":129,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":130,"createdDate":131,"lastUpdatedDate":92,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":132,"tags":133},"hospital-and-laboratory-waste-management","Hospital and Laboratory Waste Management: Classification, Segregation, Treatment, and Disposal","WHO color-coded segregation, how to decontaminate laboratory cultures before disposal, the four rules of sharps safety, and the time-critical post-exposure protocol after a needlestick injury, including what to do where incinerators are unavailable.","Srijana Khanal","2022-06-25",[],[],{"slug":135,"title":136,"description":137,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":138,"lastUpdatedDate":92,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":139,"tags":176},"microbiology-laboratory-safety-rules-procedure","Microbiology Laboratory Safety Rules and Procedures (Good Microbiological Practice)","The essential safety rules for a microbiology laboratory: PPE, aseptic technique, aerosol control, sharps, spills, and waste handling, organized by the four routes of laboratory-acquired infection.","2014-01-23",[140,143,146,149,152,155,158,161,164,167,170,173],{"question":141,"answer":142},"What is the most common laboratory-acquired infection?","Brucellosis, caused by Brucella species. It spreads mainly by inhaling aerosols generated at the bench, and most reported cases involved no recognized accident, which is why aerosol control and biosafety cabinet use matter so much.",{"question":144,"answer":145},"Why is mouth pipetting prohibited in the microbiology laboratory?","It allows pathogens or chemicals to be drawn into the mouth and swallowed. Mechanical pipetting devices remove this route entirely, which is why mouth pipetting is banned outright.",{"question":147,"answer":148},"What should you do immediately after a biological spill?","Cover the spill with absorbent paper, apply disinfectant from the outer edge inward, allow the recommended contact time, then clear and discard the material as biohazard waste. Report and record the spill afterward.",{"question":150,"answer":151},"Do these foundational lab safety rules apply only to teaching labs, or do they apply in BSL3 and BSL4 facilities too?","These rules apply in every microbiology laboratory, regardless of biosafety level. Teaching labs, BSL2 diagnostic labs, BSL3 research facilities; all follow these same foundational practices. What changes across biosafety levels is additional containment requirements, not replacement of these basics.",{"question":153,"answer":154},"Why is handwashing required after removing gloves if the gloves protected my hands?","Gloves are a barrier, but they can have undetected micro-holes, and you may have touched your skin or face while wearing them. Handwashing after glove removal ensures that even microscopic contamination that penetrated or bypassed the glove barrier is removed before you handle food, touch your face, or leave the lab.",{"question":156,"answer":157},"Why is \"no eating\" enforced even in teaching labs with non-pathogenic organisms?","Teaching labs teach practices that become automatic in real labs. More importantly, teaching labs are never completely free of unexpected contamination — organisms from the air, from other benches, from cross-contamination. The rule is universal because the risk, though lower in a teaching context, is never zero.",{"question":159,"answer":160},"What should I do if I get a small cut or needle stick in the lab?","Report it immediately, even if it seems minor. Occupational infections have started from tiny punctures that seemed insignificant. Early reporting enables medical evaluation, wound care, and prophylaxis if needed, and creates a record that proves the injury occurred in the lab (important for workers' compensation and occupational health follow-up).",{"question":162,"answer":163},"Why is aerosol prevention such a big deal if I can't see aerosols anyway?","Aerosol inhalation is the primary occupational exposure route in a microbiology lab. Unlike a splash you can see and wash off, an aerosol enters your lungs before you know it's there. Once it's inhaled, containment is impossible. Prevention (no mouth pipetting, using a BSC for aerosol-generating procedures) is the only effective strategy.",{"question":165,"answer":166},"Is it okay to eat in the lab if I wash my hands first?","No. Even if you wash your hands, contamination can be present on surfaces you then contact while eating, or in the air as an aerosol that lands on your food. The only safe rule is no eating in the lab at all, not even \"just a quick bite.\"",{"question":168,"answer":169},"What are the four routes of laboratory-acquired infection?","Inhalation of aerosols, ingestion by hand-to-mouth transfer, inoculation through needlesticks or cuts, and contact or splash onto the eyes, mouth, or broken skin. Every laboratory safety rule exists to close one of these four routes.",{"question":171,"answer":172},"Why is handwashing considered the single most effective lab safety measure","Gloves and other PPE can fail through unseen holes or misuse, but correct handwashing reliably removes organisms before they reach a break in the skin or a mucous membrane. It is the most direct control on the contact and ingestion routes.",{"question":174,"answer":175},"Why are aerosols the most dangerous route in a microbiology lab?","Aerosols are invisible, leave nothing to clean up, and are inhaled before anyone knows they were generated. Opening a plate, flaming a loaded loop, uncapping after centrifugation, and vortexing all produce them, which is why aerosol-generating work moves into a biological safety cabinet.",[85],{"slug":178,"title":179,"description":180,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":181,"createdDate":182,"lastUpdatedDate":183,"draft":45,"category":56,"image":42,"faq":184,"tags":200},"centrifuge-parts-types-handling","Centrifuge: Parts, Types, RCF vs. RPM, and How to Balance It Safely","How a centrifuge works, its parts and types, the difference between RCF and RPM (and why it decides reproducibility), and how to balance a rotor safely. A practical guide for laboratory students.","Ashma Shrestha","2022-06-03","2026-07-30",[185,188,191,194,197],{"question":186,"answer":187},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between RCF and RPM?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>RPM (revolutions per minute) is how fast the rotor spins, shown on the dial. RCF (relative centrifugal force, written as x g) is the actual force the sample experiences, in multiples of gravity. RCF depends on both the RPM and the rotor radius, so the same RPM produces different force on different centrifuges. Protocols specify RCF because it is reproducible; RPM is not.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":189,"answer":190},"\u003Cp>Why do you have to balance a centrifuge?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>At high speed, any uneven weight distribution around the rotor is multiplied into a violent wobble that can crack the rotor, break tubes, or move the machine, and in an ultracentrifuge can cause injury. Balancing keeps the center of mass on the spin axis. Place equal-mass tubes directly opposite each other, and use a water-filled blank if you have an odd number.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":192,"answer":193},"\u003Cp>Should I balance tubes by volume or by weight?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By weight. Two tubes of equal volume but different-density contents are not balanced. Match the masses of opposing tubes, not just their fill levels.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":195,"answer":196},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a fixed-angle and a swinging-bucket rotor?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A fixed-angle rotor holds tubes at a set angle and pellets particles quickly against the tube wall. A swinging-bucket rotor lets the tubes swing out to horizontal while spinning, giving a flat pellet and clean separation of layers, which suits density-gradient work and separating blood.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":198,"answer":199},"\u003Cp>Why are some centrifuges refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The friction of a spinning rotor generates heat that can damage heat-sensitive samples such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and antibodies. A refrigerated centrifuge holds a low temperature (commonly around 4°C) during the spin to protect these samples.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":202,"title":203,"description":204,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":181,"createdDate":205,"lastUpdatedDate":206,"draft":45,"category":56,"image":42,"faq":207,"tags":223},"laboratory-incubator-principle-parts-types-and-uses","Laboratory Incubator: Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, and Why Cultures Fail","How a laboratory incubator works, its parts and types, the right temperature for each organism, and the common mistakes that make cultures fail. A practical guide for microbiology and lab science students.","2022-06-14","2026-08-21",[208,211,214,217,220],{"question":209,"answer":210},"What temperature is a laboratory incubator usually set to?","Most laboratory incubators are set to 35–37°C, which matches human body temperature and suits the majority of bacteria that cause human infections. Fungi are incubated cooler at 25–30°C, and some organisms need special temperatures such as 42°C for Campylobacter.",{"question":212,"answer":213},"What is the difference between an incubator and a hot air oven?","An incubator holds a low, controlled temperature (around 37°C) to grow microorganisms. A hot air oven reaches 160–180°C to sterilize glassware and instruments by dry heat. One promotes growth; the other destroys it.",{"question":215,"answer":216},"Why do some cultures need a CO₂ incubator?","Certain fastidious organisms, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria species, need an atmosphere with 5–10% carbon dioxide to grow. A CO₂ incubator supplies this from an external cylinder while still keeping oxygen present, which is different from an anaerobic environment.",{"question":218,"answer":219},"Why did my culture not grow even though the temperature was correct?","A correct temperature display does not guarantee growth. Common causes are an empty CO₂ cylinder, a door left ajar or a worn gasket leaking warm air, overcrowding that blocks airflow, the wrong temperature for that organism, dried-out medium, or a thermostat that has drifted out of calibration.",{"question":221,"answer":222},"Is a refrigerated or BOD incubator really an incubator?","Yes. It is called an incubator because it maintains a precise set temperature for growth. The difference is that it holds a temperature below room temperature (around 20°C or lower) using a cooling system, rather than only heating.",[],{"enabled":225,"threads":226,"total":227},true,[],0,[229,235,241,247,253,258,264,269,274,277,283],{"slug":230,"name":43,"description":231,"image":232,"body":233,"postCount":234},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",516,{"slug":236,"name":181,"description":237,"image":238,"body":239,"postCount":240},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",88,{"slug":242,"name":121,"description":243,"image":244,"body":245,"postCount":246},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":248,"name":249,"description":243,"image":250,"body":251,"postCount":252},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":254,"name":255,"description":243,"image":42,"body":256,"postCount":257},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":259,"name":260,"description":261,"image":42,"body":262,"postCount":263},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":265,"name":266,"description":267,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":268},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":270,"name":130,"description":243,"image":271,"body":272,"postCount":273},"srijana-khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":275,"name":276,"description":267,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":268},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":278,"name":90,"description":279,"image":280,"body":281,"postCount":282},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",55,{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":286,"image":287,"body":288,"postCount":268},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[290,297,303,307,312,317,321,325,329,334,338,343,347,352,357,362,366,370,375,380,384,388,392,396,399,403,407,411,416,421,426,430,434,439,443,447,451,455,459,463,467,471,475,478,482,487,491,495,500,504,508,512,516,520,524,529,533,537,541,545,549,553,557,561,565,569,573,577,580,584,587,590,593,596,599,602,605,608,611,614,617,620,623,626,629,632,636,639],{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":293,"image":294,"body":295,"postCount":296},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":42,"body":301,"postCount":302},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":304,"name":305,"description":306,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",{"slug":308,"name":309,"description":310,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":313,"name":314,"description":315,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":316},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":318,"name":319,"description":320,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":322,"name":323,"description":324,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":326,"name":327,"description":328,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":330,"name":331,"description":332,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":335,"name":336,"description":337,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":339,"name":340,"description":341,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":342},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",22,{"slug":344,"name":345,"description":346,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":353,"name":354,"description":355,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":358,"name":359,"description":360,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",21,{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":42,"image":42,"body":365,"postCount":257},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":367,"name":368,"description":42,"image":42,"body":369,"postCount":351},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":374,"postCount":333},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":379,"postCount":257},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":387,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",{"slug":85,"name":397,"description":398,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":400,"name":401,"description":402,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":410,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":415},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":422,"name":423,"description":424,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",3,{"slug":427,"name":428,"description":429,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":431,"name":432,"description":433,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":435,"name":436,"description":437,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":415},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":474,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":476,"name":477,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",{"slug":479,"name":480,"description":481,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":483,"name":484,"description":485,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":486},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",13,{"slug":488,"name":489,"description":490,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":494,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":496,"name":497,"description":498,"image":42,"body":499,"postCount":257},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":503,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":505,"name":506,"description":507,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":509,"name":510,"description":511,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":515,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":268},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":517,"name":518,"description":519,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":521,"name":522,"description":523,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":525,"name":526,"description":527,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":528},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",11,{"slug":530,"name":531,"description":532,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":534,"name":535,"description":536,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":538,"name":539,"description":540,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":316},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":542,"name":543,"description":544,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":546,"name":547,"description":548,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":550,"name":551,"description":552,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":554,"name":555,"description":556,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":558,"name":559,"description":560,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":562,"name":563,"description":564,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":316},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":566,"name":567,"description":568,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":570,"name":571,"description":572,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":574,"name":575,"description":576,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":578,"name":579,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":268},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":581,"name":582,"description":583,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":585,"name":586,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":594,"name":595,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":597,"name":598,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":600,"name":601,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":603,"name":604,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":606,"name":607,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":609,"name":610,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":612,"name":613,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":415},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":615,"name":616,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":311},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":618,"name":619,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":621,"name":622,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":624,"name":625,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology",{"slug":627,"name":628,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"trematodes","Trematodes",{"slug":630,"name":631,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":420},"coccidian-parasites","Coccidian Parasites",{"slug":633,"name":634,"description":635,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"cell-structure","Cell Structure","\u003Cp>Articles related to Cell Structure. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":637,"name":638,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"automation-in-microbiology","Automation in Microbiology",{"slug":50,"name":640,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":257},"Laboratory Management"]