[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fEXTB9u67kkoe-Rvb7RBCef8jzCCupSBfaU6b9sYOPSY":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":68,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":133},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":62,"related":63,"comments":64},"properties-orthomyxoviruses-paramyxoviruses-family","Orthomyxoviruses vs Paramyxoviruses: Key Differences and Why They Matter","Why influenza can cause pandemics but measles can't, why giant cells appear in paramyxovirus infection, and what the segmented genome actually predicts.",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2016-04-02","2026-07-02",false,"virology","Two virus families, both with helical, enveloped, negative-sense ssRNA genomes; so similar in basic structure that they were originally classified together as \"myxoviruses\" because both cause hemagglutination. Yet their clinical behaviour is strikingly different: influenza returns every year in a new antigenic form and has caused some of history's most devastating pandemics, while measles and mumps have remained so antigenically stable that a single childhood vaccination series provides lifelong immunity.\n\nThe biological difference that explains most of this is one structural property: whether the genome is segmented or not. Orthomyxoviruses carry their RNA in eight separate segments; paramyxoviruses carry theirs as one continuous strand. That single architectural difference determines whether a virus can undergo reassortment (mixing segments from two co-infecting strains to generate a wholly new surface antigen profile) or whether it's limited to gradual point-mutation drift. One family can reinvent its surface proteins overnight through reassortment; the other cannot.\n\nThe comparison table below is built around this underlying logic — each row describes a property that either follows from or contributes to the difference in clinical behaviour between these two families.\n\n![ - Structural differences between Orthomyxoviruses and Paramyxoviruses](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FProperties-of-Orthomyxoviruses-and-Paramyxoviruses.png)Figure: Structural differences between Orthomyxoviruses and Paramyxoviruses\n\n### Some of the most important characteristics of these two families are\n\n| Properties | Orthomyxoviruses family | Paramyxoviruses family |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Genera | Multiple genera by current taxonomy (Influenzavirus A, B, C, D; Thogotovirus; others), but **influenza virus is the only genus of medical importance to humans.** Types A and B cause seasonal epidemics; Type C causes mild illness; Type D primarily infects cattle. | Multiple genera across two subfamilies (Paramyxovirinae and Pneumovirinae). Key human pathogens by genera: **Respirovirus** (parainfluenza 1, 3); **Rubulavirus** (mumps, parainfluenza 2, 4); **Morbillivirus** (measles); **Pneumovirus** (RSV); **Metapneumovirus** (human metapneumovirus). *(Note: Pneumovirinae is sometimes now treated as a separate family.)* |\n| Capsid | Helical | Helical |\n| Envelope | Present | Present |\n| Virion size | smaller ( 80 to 120 nm in diameter). | larger (150-300 nm in diameter). |\n| Surface spikes | Hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N) in different spikes. The viruses attach to permissive cells via the hemagglutinin subunit, which binds to cell membrane glycolipids or glycoproteins containing N-acetylneuraminic acid, the receptor for virus adsorption. | Hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N) in the same spikes Parainfluenza virus has both H and N activities, Measles lacks Neuraminidase activity and RSV lacks both H and N activities. |\n| Genome | Single-stranded (SS), negative sense, segmented RNA (influenza A virus has 8 segmented genomes) | single-stranded (SS), negative sense, non-segmented RNA |\n| Antigenic variation | Antigenic shift (through genetic reassortment) can occur when a host cell is infected simultaneously with viruses of two different parent strains and antigenic drift. | Antigenic drift only. Measles and Mumps has only one serotype so confers lifelong immunity. |\n| Virion polymerase  | yes Virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase transcribes and replicates the SS negative-sense RNA. | yes Virally encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase transcribes and replicates the SS negative-sense RNA. |\n| Giant cell formation | No | yes paramyxoviruses have the capacity to induce syncytia (multinucleated giant cells) formation. Multinucleated giant cells originate from the fusion or division of mononuclear cells. |\n| Diseases | Febrile illness of the upper and lower respiratory tract (flu); pneumonia is the most common serious complication. | **Measles virus** causes measles (rubeola) — fever, cough, coryza, Koplik spots, and maculopapular rash — with serious complications including pneumonia and encephalitis. **RSV and parainfluenza viruses** cause mild or severe upper and lower respiratory tract infections (croup, bronchiolitis, pneumonia). **Mumps virus** causes parotitis with potential complications including meningitis, encephalitis, orchitis, and pancreatitis. |\n\n## Why Each Difference Matters Clinically\n\n**Segmented vs. non-segmented genome → pandemic potential** The single most important difference in this table is the genome architecture. Orthomyxoviruses package their genome as 8 separate RNA segments. If a single host cell is infected by two different influenza strains simultaneously — say a human-adapted H3N2 and an avian H5N1 — both sets of 8 segments are in the same cellular pool during assembly. Progeny virions can incorporate segments from either parent strain in new combinations. A reassortant virus with surface proteins (HA, NA) that no living human immune system has encountered before can produce a pandemic. Paramyxoviruses, with their single non-segmented RNA strand, cannot undergo this kind of reassortment. No matter how many paramyxovirus strains co-infect the same cell, there are no separable segments to shuffle.\n\n**Antigenic variation → why vaccines for these viruses behave differently** Because paramyxoviruses are limited to gradual point-mutation drift (no reassortment), their surface antigens remain relatively stable over time. Measles and mumps each have only one serotype — the same surface proteins you encounter today are essentially the same ones that circulated decades ago. One vaccine course is sufficient for lifelong protection because the immune system never encounters a significantly different antigen. Influenza, by contrast, can change its surface antigens radically through reassortment (and gradually through drift), which is why the flu vaccine must be reformulated annually and why pandemic strains can arise without warning.\n\n**Surface spike arrangement → why RSV and measles are harder to neutralize by NA antibodies** In orthomyxoviruses, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) are carried on separate spikes, allowing antibodies against each to function independently. In paramyxoviruses, parainfluenza virus carries both activities on a single HN spike; measles virus lacks neuraminidase entirely; and RSV lacks both hemagglutinating and neuraminidase activity entirely. This is clinically important: for viruses lacking neuraminidase (measles, RSV), neuraminidase inhibitors like oseltamivir would have no antiviral effect — there is no target.\n\n**Giant cell (syncytium) formation → diagnostic CPE signature of paramyxoviruses** Paramyxoviruses encode a fusion (F) protein that promotes cell-to-cell membrane fusion, producing multinucleated giant cells (syncytia) in infected tissue. This allows the virus to spread directly between cells without entering the extracellular space — avoiding contact with circulating antibodies. Orthomyxoviruses lack this F protein and cannot form syncytia. The presence of multinucleated giant cells in respiratory tissue or cell culture is therefore a strong diagnostic pointer toward a paramyxovirus, not influenza. Warthin-Finkeldey giant cells in lymphoid tissue are pathognomonic for measles specifically.\n\n### How to Remember\n\n**Orthomyxo = \"straight\" segments; Paramyxo = \"beyond\" (one continuous strand).** The prefix \"ortho\" means correct\u002Fstraight in Greek; \"para\" means beside\u002Fbeyond. Orthomyxoviruses have the \"straight\" genome — eight separate segments in a line. Paramyxoviruses go \"beyond\" the standard myxovirus arrangement with a single unsegmented strand. Remembering the prefix meaning anchors the most important structural difference.\n\n**Segmented → Shift possible; Non-segmented → Shift impossible.** Antigenic shift requires segment exchange between co-infecting strains. You cannot exchange what isn't separable. If you remember \"segmented genome = shift capable,\" the pandemic history of influenza (and the absence of paramyxovirus pandemics) becomes predictable rather than arbitrary.\n\n**RSV lacks everything; Measles lacks only N; Parainfluenza has both.** For paramyxovirus surface activities, build it up from nothing: RSV is the \"bare minimum\" (no H, no N). Measles adds H but still has no N. Parainfluenza has both, like influenza but on a single combined HN spike rather than separate spikes. Going from bare (RSV) → half (measles, +H) → full combined (parainfluenza, +HN) is easier to anchor than trying to memorise each from scratch.\n\n**Syncytia = Paramyxo, not Ortho.** Giant cells in respiratory tissue = paramyxovirus. No giant cells = influenza. The F (fusion) protein that drives syncytium formation is exclusive to paramyxoviruses. If you see \"multinucleated giant cells in lung biopsy from a respiratory infection,\" think paramyxovirus (RSV, measles, parainfluenza), not influenza.\n\n## Key Exam Facts Table\n\n| Feature | Orthomyxoviruses | Paramyxoviruses |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Clinically important family member(s) | Influenza A, B, C | Parainfluenza, RSV, Measles, Mumps, hMPV |\n| Genome | ss(−)RNA, **segmented** (8 segments for A & B; 7 for C) | ss(−)RNA, **non-segmented** (single continuous strand) |\n| Size | Smaller (80–120 nm) | Larger (150–300 nm) |\n| Surface glycoproteins | **Separate** H spike and N spike | **Combined** HN spike (parainfluenza); measles: H only (no N); RSV: neither |\n| Antigenic variation mechanisms | **Drift + Shift** (reassortment possible due to segmented genome) | **Drift only** (no reassortment; single serotype for measles and mumps) |\n| Syncytium (giant cell) formation | **No** (no F protein) | **Yes** (F fusion protein allows cell-to-cell spread) |\n| Virion-packaged polymerase | Yes (negative-sense genome must carry RNA polymerase) | Yes (same reason) |\n| Pandemic potential | **Yes** (H1N1 1918, H2N2 1957, H3N2 1968, H1N1 2009) | **No** documented paramyxovirus pandemic |\n| Vaccine update frequency | Annual (drift + shift) | Not needed annually (antigenically stable) |\n| Key disease example | Seasonal flu, pandemic flu | Croup (parainfluenza), bronchiolitis (RSV), measles, mumps |\n\n### Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"Both families are myxoviruses so their genomes are essentially the same.\"** The single most important difference is the one that's invisible on initial inspection: segmented vs. non-segmented genome. Orthomyxoviruses package 8 separate RNA segments; paramyxoviruses have one continuous strand. Everything else that differs clinically between the two families — pandemic potential, vaccine update frequency, antigenic shift — flows from this one structural difference.\n\n**\"Measles virus has hemagglutinin, so it should cause hemagglutination like influenza.\"** Measles does have a hemagglutinin-like protein (H protein), but it hemagglutinates primate red blood cells only (not the chicken or guinea pig RBCs used in standard laboratory hemagglutination tests), and its H protein functions primarily as a receptor-binding attachment protein rather than producing strong hemagglutination in routine assays. This is why measles is sometimes described as \"lacks neuraminidase\" but its H protein behavior is different enough from influenza's that routine HAI tests don't apply.\n\n**\"RSV must have some kind of hemagglutinin since it's a respiratory virus.\"** RSV lacks both hemagglutinating and neuraminidase activity entirely. It attaches to respiratory epithelial cells via its G protein (not an HN protein), and uses its F protein for membrane fusion. Neuraminidase inhibitors (oseltamivir, zanamivir) have no activity against RSV — there is simply no neuraminidase to inhibit.\n\n**\"Antigenic shift and antigenic drift are both possible in paramyxoviruses.\"** Shift is impossible in paramyxoviruses because their genome is non-segmented — there are no separate segments to exchange between co-infecting strains. Only drift (gradual accumulation of point mutations) occurs. This is why measles has remained a single serotype, which is also why the MMR vaccine works reliably decades after its introduction without reformulation.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Afonso, C. L., Amarasinghe, G. K., Bányai, K., Bào, Y., Basler, C. F., Bavari, S., … Kuhn, J. H. (2016). Taxonomy of the order Mononegavirales: update 2016. *Archives of Virology*, *161*(8), 2351–2360. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1007\u002Fs00705-016-2880-1>\n2. Lowen, A. C. (2017). Constraints, drivers, and implications of influenza A virus reassortment. *Annual Review of Virology*, *4*(1), 105–121. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1146\u002Fannurev-virology-101416-041726>\n3. Fearns, R., & Deval, J. (2016). New antiviral approaches for respiratory syncytial virus and other mononegaviruses: Inhibiting the RNA polymerase. *Antiviral Research*, *134*, 63–76. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.antiviral.2016.08.006>",[50,53,56,59],{"question":51,"answer":52},"Why can influenza cause pandemics but measles cannot?","Influenza has a segmented genome (8 separate RNA segments), which allows two different influenza strains co-infecting the same cell to exchange segments during assembly — producing a reassortant with entirely new surface proteins. Measles has a single non-segmented RNA strand, making this kind of segment exchange impossible. Without reassortment, measles cannot generate the sudden, wholesale surface antigen change needed to produce a pandemic strain.",{"question":54,"answer":55},"Why does the MMR vaccine provide lifelong protection against measles but the flu vaccine needs to be updated annually?","Measles has only one serotype — its surface antigens are antigenically stable because it can only change gradually through point mutations (drift), not through reassortment (shift). The flu vaccine needs annual updating because influenza's segmented genome allows shift-generated strains with surface proteins that prior-season vaccines don't cover.",{"question":57,"answer":58},"What does \"HN spike\" mean in paramyxoviruses, and how is it different from influenza?","In parainfluenza virus (a paramyxovirus), hemagglutinin and neuraminidase activities are combined on a single HN glycoprotein spike. In influenza, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase are on separate spikes. Measles paramyxovirus has H activity but no neuraminidase; RSV has neither.",{"question":60,"answer":61},"Why do paramyxovirus infections produce giant cells but influenza does not?","Paramyxoviruses encode a fusion (F) protein that promotes direct cell-to-cell membrane fusion, producing multinucleated giant cells (syncytia). This allows the virus to spread between cells without entering the extracellular environment where antibodies could neutralise it. Orthomyxoviruses (influenza) lack an F protein and cannot form syncytia.",[],[],{"enabled":65,"threads":66,"total":67},true,[],0,[69,75,82,89,95,100,106,111,117,120,127],{"slug":70,"name":43,"description":71,"image":72,"body":73,"postCount":74},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":76,"name":77,"description":78,"image":79,"body":80,"postCount":81},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":83,"name":84,"description":85,"image":86,"body":87,"postCount":88},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":90,"name":91,"description":85,"image":92,"body":93,"postCount":94},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":96,"name":97,"description":85,"image":42,"body":98,"postCount":99},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":101,"name":102,"description":103,"image":42,"body":104,"postCount":105},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":107,"name":108,"description":109,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":110},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":112,"name":113,"description":85,"image":114,"body":115,"postCount":116},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":118,"name":119,"description":109,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":110},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":121,"name":122,"description":123,"image":124,"body":125,"postCount":126},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":128,"name":129,"description":130,"image":131,"body":132,"postCount":110},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[134,141,147,152,157,162,166,170,174,179,183,188,192,197,202,206,210,214,219,224,228,232,236,241,245,249,253,257,262,267,271,275,279,283,287,291,295,299,303,307,311,315,319,323,327,331,335,339,344,348,352,356,360,364,368,372,376,380,384,388,392,396,400,404,408,412,416,420,423,427],{"slug":135,"name":136,"description":137,"image":138,"body":139,"postCount":140},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":142,"name":143,"description":144,"image":42,"body":145,"postCount":146},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":148,"name":149,"description":150,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":151},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":153,"name":154,"description":155,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":158,"name":159,"description":160,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":163,"name":164,"description":165,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":151},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":167,"name":168,"description":169,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":151},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":171,"name":172,"description":173,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":175,"name":176,"description":177,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":178},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":180,"name":181,"description":182,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":140},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":184,"name":185,"description":186,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":189,"name":190,"description":191,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":193,"name":194,"description":195,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":198,"name":199,"description":200,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":201},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":203,"name":204,"description":205,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":207,"name":208,"description":42,"image":42,"body":209,"postCount":99},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":211,"name":212,"description":42,"image":42,"body":213,"postCount":196},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":215,"name":216,"description":217,"image":42,"body":218,"postCount":178},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":220,"name":221,"description":222,"image":42,"body":223,"postCount":99},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":225,"name":226,"description":227,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":229,"name":230,"description":231,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":233,"name":234,"description":235,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":237,"name":238,"description":239,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":240},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":242,"name":243,"description":244,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":178},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":246,"name":247,"description":248,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":250,"name":251,"description":252,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":254,"name":255,"description":256,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":258,"name":259,"description":260,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":261},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":263,"name":264,"description":265,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":268,"name":269,"description":270,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":272,"name":273,"description":274,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":276,"name":277,"description":278,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":105},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":280,"name":281,"description":282,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":286,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":288,"name":289,"description":290,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":292,"name":293,"description":294,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":296,"name":297,"description":298,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":261},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":300,"name":301,"description":302,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":304,"name":305,"description":306,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":178},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":308,"name":309,"description":310,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":105},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":178},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":322},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":324,"name":325,"description":326,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":330,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":332,"name":333,"description":334,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":140},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":340,"name":341,"description":342,"image":42,"body":343,"postCount":99},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":345,"name":346,"description":347,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":349,"name":350,"description":351,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":353,"name":354,"description":355,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":357,"name":358,"description":359,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":110},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":361,"name":362,"description":363,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":365,"name":366,"description":367,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":94},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":369,"name":370,"description":371,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":151},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":373,"name":374,"description":375,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":387,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":322},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":178},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":397,"name":398,"description":399,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":401,"name":402,"description":403,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":405,"name":406,"description":407,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":178},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":409,"name":410,"description":411,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":99},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":413,"name":414,"description":415,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":178},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":110},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":322},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]