[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fzLC1QnNrYLx1bWnl8d433eUFv9QubOVbZ92TNhjmHvo":32,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":100},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"type":33,"data":34},"blog",{"slug":35,"title":36,"description":36,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":39,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"body":43,"faq":44,"tags":45,"related":47},"prebiotics-mechanisms-sources-and-examples","Prebiotics: Mechanisms, Sources, and Examples",null,"Aastha Shrestha","2022-12-04","2026-07-05",false,"general-microbiology","Glenn Gibson and Marcel Roberfroid first introduced the concept of prebiotics in 1995. They stated that a “**Prebiotic is a nondigestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and\u002For activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon, and thus improves host health**.” This was later redefined in 2008 as “a selectively fermented ingredient that results in specific changes in the composition and\u002For activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota, thus conferring benefits upon host health.”\n\nPrebiotics are included in a human diet containing different types of fruits, vegetables, and legumes, which are a source of plant polysaccharides and are fermented by microbes. The prebiotics food includes broccoli, carrots, Jerusalem, Psyllium seed husk, garlic, onions, asparagus, wheat, oat, rye, barley, tomatoes, berries, root tubers, and root vegetables(sweet potato, potato), and so on. Nowadays, prebiotics are produced commercially as a supplementary diet.\n\n## Mechanism of Action of Prebiotics\n\nHuman enzymes such as pancreatic and salivary amylase digest few carbohydrates (present in our diet) by breaking glycosidic linkages present in them, while those not digested act as a substrate for bacterial fermentation. These non-digestible substances include oligosaccharides and polysaccharides which are usually called prebiotics and can withstand digestion and absorption in the small intestine. However, these get fermented by the intestinal flora especially Bifidobacteria and [Lactobacillus](\u002Fbeneficial-microorganisms-use\u002F) in the large intestine which positively impacts the gut.\n\nThe enzymes produced by bacteria ferment complex polysaccharides and produce secondary metabolites, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as propionate, butyrate, acetate, and gases. These by-products encourage the activity and proliferation of good native bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract and reduce pathogenic bacteria. They also protect other body parts, such as the central nervous, cardiovascular, and immune systems.\n\n![Fermentation of prebiotics - Fermentation of Prebiotics](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FPREBIOTICS-1.jpg)Figure: Fermentation of Prebiotics\n\n## Criteria for Eligibility as Prebiotic\n\nFor the food ingredients to be [prebiotic](\u002Fprobiotics-prebiotics\u002F), they need to fulfill the following criteria:\n\n1. Resistant to hydrolysis and not absorbed in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract\n2. Selective substrate for one or few beneficial bacteria that is naturally present in the colon.\n3. Beneficial to the host’s health and able to change the flora in order to make it healthier.\n4. Encouraged to thrive or metabolically trigger induce luminal or systemic effects that are beneficial to host health.\n5. For commercially produced, must have a good storage life at room temperatures such as heat, and dehydration.\n\n## Prebiotic Examples\n\nIn human diets, prebiotics exists in small concentration and includes oligosaccharide carbohydrates as well as non-carbohydrates that meet the above-mentioned criteria. The most widely known prebiotics includes inulin, galactooligosaccharides, and fructooligosaccharides while other include polyphenols, lactitol, xylooligosaccharides, isomaltooligosaccharides are emerging prebiotics. Some of the widely used prebiotics are:\n\n![Different examples of Prebiotics - Examples of prebiotics](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FExamples-of-Prebiotics.png)Figure: Examples of prebiotics\n\n### Galacto-oligosaccharides(GOS)\n\nGOS are composed of two to eight sugar units, two of which are galactose and two disaccharides (containing two galactose units), and one of the sugar units is terminal glucose. The chemical structures vary by branching, chain length, and glycosyl linkages. Food that contains galactooligosaccharides includes lentils, chickpeas, dairy products, beans, and so on.\n\n**Biological activity**: It enhances the production of short-chain fatty acids, reduces the count of potentially pathogenic bacteria, promotes normal function of the intestine, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and so on. It naturally occurs in breast milk and stimulates the intestinal Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli in infants. Since it has a positive effect on immune function, it is commercially available and is added to dairy products such as yogurt and infant formulas.\n\n### Inulin\n\nIt is a non-digestible water-soluble storage polysaccharide found in many plant-based foods. These are polymers consisting of a linear chain of β-2,1-linked d-fructofuranose molecules terminated at the reducing end by a sucrose-type linkage by a glucose residue. It is difficult for inulin to be absorbed and digested by the human small intestine due to the existence of β-()-D-frutosyl fructose bonds between the fructose unit and the isomeric carbon of inulin, but it can be fermented by the intestinal flora of the human large intestine. Some examples of food that contains inulin include Asparagus, Dandelion root, onions, chicory, burdock, leeks, and so on.\n\n![ - Helianthus tuberosustubers](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FInulin-source.jpg)Figure: Helianthus tuberosustubers\n\n**Biological activity**: It increases the apparent calcium and magnesium absorption, relieves constipation, manages blood sugar and blood lipid with diabetes type II in elderly people, suppresses the appetite reduces weight, and enhances gut microbiome such as *Bifidiobacteria.*\n\n### Fructooligosaccharides (FOS)\n\nIt is inulin-type fructans, which have low calories and are non-digestible carbohydrates. These are composed of linear chains of fructose units, linked by β-2,1 bond. Food that contains fructooligosaccharides: tomatoes, garlic, onions, wheat, rye, chicory root, seaweed, sugar cane, rice bran, papaya, beetroot peels, and so on.\n\n**Biological activity:** It enhances the body’s intestinal flora, lowers the risk of heart disease and certain cancers, relieves constipation, improves lipids in hyperlipidemia, stops the production of putrefactive substances in the gut, and promotes healthier digestion. They have a number of advantageous physiological effects, including less carcinogenicity, improved mineral absorption in the intestine, and decreased levels of triacylglycerols, phospholipids, and serum cholesterol.\n\n## Advantages of Prebiotics\n\nPrebiotics has more positive effects on human health. Some of these advantages are mentioned below:\n\n1. These affect mainly the gastrointestinal tract as well as distant organs such as the central nervous system, immune system, and cardiovascular system, as their degradation forms majorly SCFAs which enter the blood circulation by diffusing through gut enterocytes.\n2. The fermented product of prebiotics is mostly acids which decreases the pH of the gut from 6.5 to 5.5 that alters the population of gut microbes. Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria decrease the harmful bacteria. As an example, the colonization of [Salmonella ](\u002Fsalmonella-disease-properties-pathogenesis-and-laboratory-diagnosis\u002F)in the epithelium is prevented due to the adhesion of mannose to Salmonella.\n3. Inhibits the activities of spoilage bacteria like Clostridium spp., such as an increase in Bifidobacteria in the gut, harmful fermentation products are less likely to occur.\n4. In the intestinal epithelium, butyric acid reduces the growth of lesions such as adenomas and carcinomas in the gut.\n5. Gut microbiota affects the central nervous system activity through the “gut-brain axis”. Some prebiotics, like FOS and GOS, regulates synaptic proteins, neurotransmitters (such d-serine), and brain-derived neurotrophic factors.\n\n## Limitations of Prebiotics\n\nThe intake of prebiotics also has a few limitations which are mentioned below:\n\n1. Prebiotics may negatively impact lipid profiles by generating certain SCFAs, namely acetate. Acetyl-CoA, which is a substrate for the synthesis of fatty acids in hepatocytes, can be produced from acetate. This may explain why blood levels of cholesterol and triglycerides rose following rectal acetate infusion.\n2. Prebiotics are fermented in the colon and have an osmotic effect in the intestinal lumen. They could cause bloating and flatulence.\n3. High doses cause diarrhea and abdominal pain.\n4. Large daily doses have lately been linked to a rise in gastroesophageal reflux.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Davani-Davari, D., Negahdaripour, M., Karimzadeh, I., Seifan, M., Mohkam, M., Masoumi, S. J., … Ghasemi, Y. (2019). Prebiotics: Definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications. *MDPI*, *8*(3), 1–27. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3390\u002Ffoods8030092>\n2. Gibson, G. R., & Roberfroid, M. B. (1995). Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: Introducing the concept of prebiotics. *Journal of Nutrition*, *125*(6), 1401–1412. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1093\u002Fjn\u002F125.6.1401>\n3. Rahim, M. A., Saeed, F., Khalid, W., Hussain, M., & Anjum, F. M. (2021). Functional and nutraceutical properties of fructo-oligosaccharides derivatives: a review. *International Journal of Food Properties*, *24*(1), 1588–1602. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1080\u002F10942912.2021.1986520>\n4. You, S., Ma, Y., Yan, B., Pei, W., Wu, Q., Ding, C., & Huang, C. (2022). The promotion mechanism of prebiotics for probiotics: A review. *Frontiers in Nutrition*, *9*(2), 1–22. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3389\u002Ffnut.2022.1000517>\n5. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fatlasbiomed.com\u002Fblog\u002Finulin-prebiotic-fiber\u002F>\n6. Holscher, H.D. (2017) Dietary fiber and prebiotics and the gastrointestinal microbiota. *Gut Microb* 8, 172–184\n7. Marteau P, Seksik P. Tolerance of probiotics and prebiotics. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2004 Jul;38(6 Suppl):S67-9. doi: 10.1097\u002F01.mcg.0000128929.37156.a7. PMID: 15220662.",[],[46],"food-microbiology",[48,55,62,69,75,81,87,93],{"slug":49,"title":50,"description":50,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":51,"createdDate":52,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":53,"tags":54},"food-preservation-method-canning","Canning: Types, Procedure, and Applications","Samikshya Acharya","2023-05-22",[],[46],{"slug":56,"title":57,"description":57,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":58,"createdDate":59,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":60,"tags":61},"food-spoilage-causes-and-prevention","Food Spoilage: Causes and Prevention","Alisha Tripathi","2023-03-15",[],[46],{"slug":63,"title":64,"description":64,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":65,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":66,"tags":67},"pasteurization-food-preservation-method","Pasteurization: Types and Advantages","2023-03-01",[],[68,46],"sterilization-disinfection",{"slug":70,"title":71,"description":71,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":72,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":73,"tags":74},"lactic-acid-fermentation","Lactic Acid Fermentation","2023-02-19",[],[46],{"slug":76,"title":77,"description":77,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":78,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":79,"tags":80},"microorganisms-found-in-food","Microorganisms Found in Food","2023-02-17",[],[46],{"slug":82,"title":83,"description":83,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":84,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":85,"tags":86},"food-preservation-methods","Food Preservation: Methods and Their Importance","2023-02-08",[],[46],{"slug":88,"title":89,"description":89,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":90,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":91,"tags":92},"fermented-foods-types-examples-and-health-benefits","Fermented Foods: Types, Examples, and Health Benefits","2022-12-19",[],[46],{"slug":94,"title":95,"description":95,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":96,"createdDate":97,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":98,"tags":99},"which-probiotics-to-use","Which Probiotics to Use?","Acharya Tankeshwar","2022-05-11",[],[46],[101,107,114,119,122,125,129,134,138,142],{"slug":102,"name":96,"description":103,"image":104,"body":105,"postCount":106},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",433,{"slug":108,"name":109,"description":110,"image":111,"body":112,"postCount":113},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",81,{"slug":115,"name":116,"description":117,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":118},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor",32,{"slug":120,"name":51,"description":117,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":121},"samikshya-acharya",20,{"slug":123,"name":58,"description":117,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":124},"alisha-tripathi",6,{"slug":126,"name":38,"description":127,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":128},"aastha-shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor",10,{"slug":130,"name":131,"description":132,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":133},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",2,{"slug":135,"name":136,"description":117,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":137},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal",18,{"slug":139,"name":140,"description":132,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":141},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",1,{"slug":143,"name":144,"description":117,"image":37,"body":145,"postCount":146},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","**Nisha Rijal** is a microbiologist and quality assurance specialist. She served for nearly 12 years as a microbiologist at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), Nepal's national reference laboratory, and continues to work as a consultant microbiologist in international public health organization. ",51]