[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fK8tmAxp7nvmJEZnzG6pGRFy9T7Wg6vSW8T5pjxC3s80":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":258,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":321},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":65,"related":67,"comments":254},"paper-chromatography","Paper Chromatography: Principle, Procedure, Types and Uses","\u003Cp>Paper chromatography explained: its partition principle and Rf value, the types (ascending, descending, radial), step-by-step procedure, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-10","2026-08-18",false,"lab-equipment","Put a single spot of black ink near the bottom of a strip of filter paper, stand the strip in a little water, and wait. Within minutes the black spot climbs and splits into separate rings of blue, pink, and yellow, because \"black\" ink is really a mixture of dyes, and each one is carried a different distance. Do the same with a smear of crushed green leaf and you will see the chlorophyll separate from the yellow and orange pigments hiding beneath it. That simple, beautiful experiment is **paper chromatography**, one of the easiest ways to separate the parts of a mixture. This article explains what it is, the principle behind it, its types, the full procedure, and where it is used.\n\n## What is paper chromatography?\n\n**Paper chromatography** is a technique that separates the components of a mixture as they move along a strip of special paper carried by a solvent. A small spot of the sample is placed near one end of the paper, and the edge of the paper is dipped in a solvent. As the solvent soaks through the paper by capillary action, it carries the components of the mixture with it, and because each component travels at a different speed, they separate into distinct spots.\n\nAlthough the paper looks like the important part, the real **stationary phase** is the **water held within the fibers of the paper**. The moving solvent is the **mobile phase**. Paper chromatography is one of the simplest members of the [chromatography](\u002Fchromatography-an-overview\u002F) family and is closely related to [thin layer chromatography (TLC)](\u002Fthin-layer-chromatography\u002F).\n\n## Why paper chromatography matters\n\nPaper chromatography is popular because it is **extremely cheap, simple, and needs almost no equipment**, just paper, solvent, and a jar. That makes it the classic first experiment for learning how separation works, and it is still genuinely useful for quickly separating and identifying colored substances such as pigments, dyes, and inks, and for teaching how the Rf value works.\n\n## Principle of paper chromatography\n\nPaper chromatography works by **partition**. This is a key point that students often get wrong: the separation is not mainly the paper \"adsorbing\" the sample, but the sample dividing itself between two liquids.\n\nThe paper naturally holds a thin layer of **water** trapped in its cellulose fibers, and this water is the **stationary phase**. The **solvent** that climbs the paper is the **mobile phase**. As the solvent rises, each component of the mixture constantly partitions (shares itself) between the stationary water and the moving solvent:\n\n- A component that is **more soluble in the moving solvent** spends more time in the mobile phase and travels **far** up the paper.\n- A component that is **more attracted to the stationary water** stays behind and travels only a **short** distance.\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fpaper-chromatography.png\" alt=\"Labeled paper chromatography diagram showing the developing jar, the paper strip with the origin line above the solvent, the rising solvent front, the separated spots, and how the Rf value is measured.\" width=\"895\" height=\"590\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>A paper chromatography setup and how the Rf value is measured.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\nBecause different substances have different solubilities, they move at different speeds and separate into distinct spots.\n\n### The Rf value\n\nThe movement of each spot is described by its **Rf value (retention factor)**, exactly as in TLC:\n\n> **Rf = distance traveled by the component \u002F distance traveled by the solvent front**\n\nBoth distances are measured from the **origin** (the starting spot). The Rf value has **no units** and is **always between 0 and 1**, because a spot can never move faster than the solvent carrying it.\n\n**Worked example:** if the solvent front rises 12 cm from the origin and a spot travels 6 cm, then Rf = 6 \u002F 12 = **0.5**. Under the same paper and solvent, that substance will always give an Rf near 0.5, so the value helps identify it.\n\n## Types of paper chromatography\n\n- **Ascending:** the solvent moves **upward** through the paper against gravity. This is the most common and simplest form.\n- **Descending:** the solvent is placed in a trough at the top and moves **downward**, helped by gravity, which makes it faster.\n- **Ascending-descending:** a combined form where the solvent first rises and then descends, giving a longer run.\n- **Radial (circular):** the sample is spotted at the center of a circular paper and the solvent spreads **outward**, separating the components into rings.\n- **Two-dimensional (2D):** the sample is run with one solvent, the paper is turned 90 degrees, and it is run again with a second solvent. This separates complex mixtures such as amino acids far more clearly.\n\n## Parts and materials\n\n- **Chromatography paper:** a high-quality filter paper (such as Whatman paper) that holds water in its fibers.\n- **Stationary phase:** the water held within that paper.\n- **Mobile phase (solvent):** a solvent or a mixture of solvents chosen to suit the sample.\n- **Developing chamber:** a closed jar or tank with a lid, which keeps the air inside saturated with solvent vapor.\n- **Capillary tube or micropipette:** to apply a small, neat sample spot.\n- **Detecting agent:** a UV lamp or a spray reagent (such as ninhydrin for amino acids) to reveal colorless spots.\n\n## Procedure of paper chromatography (step by step)\n\n1. **Prepare the paper.** Cut a strip of chromatography paper and draw a faint pencil **origin line** about 2 cm from one end.\n2. **Spot the sample.** Using a capillary tube, place a small, concentrated spot of the sample on the origin line and let it dry. Keep the spot small for a sharp result.\n3. **Add the solvent.** Pour a shallow layer of solvent into the jar. The solvent level **must stay below the origin line**, so the spot is not dipped directly into the solvent.\n4. **Develop the chromatogram.** Stand the paper in the jar and close the lid. The solvent rises through the paper by capillary action, carrying the components upward and separating them.\n5. **Mark the solvent front.** Remove the paper before the solvent reaches the top, and immediately mark how far the solvent traveled (the **solvent front**). Then let the paper dry.\n6. **Detect the spots.** Colored spots are seen directly; colorless ones are revealed under a UV lamp or with a spray reagent.\n7. **Calculate the Rf values.** Measure each spot's distance from the origin, divide by the solvent-front distance, and record the Rf values to identify the components.\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n- **The stationary phase is water, not the paper itself.** The paper is only the support; the water trapped in its fibers is what holds the sample back. This is why the mechanism is **partition**, not adsorption.\n- **The spot must sit above the solvent.** If the origin line dips into the solvent, the sample simply washes into the solvent instead of climbing the paper.\n- **Rf is always 1 or less.** A spot cannot outrun the solvent that carries it, so an Rf above 1 means the two distances were swapped.\n- **Paper chromatography versus TLC.** Both use the Rf value and look similar, but paper uses water in cellulose (partition), while [TLC](\u002Fthin-layer-chromatography\u002F) uses a thin layer of adsorbent (often silica) on a plate. TLC is faster, sharper, and more sensitive.\n- **Measure from the origin, not the bottom of the paper.** Both distances start at the origin line.\n\n## How to remember\n\n- **\"Water hides in the paper.\"** The real stationary phase is the water held in the paper's fibers, so paper chromatography is a partition method.\n- **Rf = \"Ran far?\"** A high Rf means the component ran far up the paper because it preferred the moving solvent.\n- **Radial spreads like ripples.** In radial paper chromatography the spots spread outward in rings, like ripples from a stone dropped in water.\n\n## Applications of paper chromatography\n\n- **Separating plant pigments:** splitting a leaf extract into chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, and xanthophylls, a classic biology experiment.\n- **Separating amino acids and sugars:** widely used in biochemistry teaching, often with two-dimensional runs and a ninhydrin spray for amino acids.\n- **Analyzing inks and dyes:** identifying the dyes in pens and food colorings, and in forensic document work.\n- **Qualitative analysis:** checking whether a sample contains a particular component by comparing Rf values with known standards.\n- **Teaching:** demonstrating the principle of chromatography simply and cheaply.\n\n## Advantages of paper chromatography\n\nPaper chromatography is **very cheap and simple**, needs **minimal equipment**, uses **tiny samples**, and is **easy to perform**, which makes it ideal for teaching and for quick qualitative checks. Several samples can be run side by side for direct comparison.\n\n## Limitations of paper chromatography\n\nIt is **slow** compared with TLC, gives **less sharp separation** and **lower sensitivity**, and is mainly **qualitative** rather than quantitative. It works best for small, mostly colored samples, is **not suited to large-scale** separation, and results can be affected by humidity and the quality of the paper. For sharper, faster results, [TLC](\u002Fthin-layer-chromatography\u002F) is usually preferred.\n\n## Key exam points\n\n| Point | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Stationary phase | Water held in the fibers of the chromatography paper |\n| Mobile phase | A solvent (or solvent mixture) that rises by capillary action |\n| Mechanism | Partition (the sample divides between the stationary water and the moving solvent) |\n| Rf value | Distance traveled by component \u002F distance traveled by solvent front (from the origin) |\n| Rf range | Always between 0 and 1; no units |\n| Main types | Ascending, descending, ascending-descending, radial (circular), two-dimensional |\n| Spotting rule | Sample spot on the origin line, above the solvent level |\n| Detection | Direct color, UV lamp, or spray reagents such as ninhydrin |\n| Main uses | Separating pigments, amino acids, sugars, inks, and dyes |\n| Main limitation | Slow, low resolution, mostly qualitative (TLC is sharper and faster) |\n\n**References**\n\n1. Consden R, Gordon AH, Martin AJP. Qualitative analysis of proteins: a partition chromatographic method using paper. *Biochemical Journal*. 1944;38(3):224-232.\n2. Harris DC. *Quantitative Chemical Analysis*. 9th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2015.\n3. Sherma J, Fried B. *Handbook of Thin-Layer Chromatography*. 3rd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2003.\n4. Wilson K, Walker J. *Principles and Techniques of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology*. 7th ed. Cambridge University Press; 2010.",[50,53,56,59,62],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>What is paper chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that separates the parts of a mixture by letting a solvent carry them along a strip of paper. Each part travels a different distance, so a single spot separates into several spots you can compare.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of paper chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It works by partition. The paper holds a thin layer of water (the stationary phase), and the moving solvent (the mobile phase) carries each component. Components that dissolve better in the solvent travel further, and those attracted to the water stay behind.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>Is paper chromatography adsorption or partition?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is mainly \u003Cstrong>partition\u003C\u002Fstrong>, because the sample divides between the water held in the paper and the moving solvent. This is a common exam point.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between paper chromatography and TLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Paper chromatography uses water held in cellulose paper as the stationary phase, while TLC uses a thin layer of an adsorbent (often silica) on a plate. TLC is faster, gives sharper spots, and is more sensitive.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>What is paper chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Separating plant pigments, amino acids, sugars, inks, and dyes, and for teaching how chromatography and the Rf value work.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],"chromatography",[68,91,114,151,176,201,226,248],{"slug":69,"title":70,"description":71,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":72,"createdDate":73,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":74,"tags":90},"chromatography-an-overview","Chromatography: Definition, Principle, Types & History","\u003Cp>Chromatography explained: what it is, its basic principle of stationary and mobile phases, who discovered it, and the main types, with links to each technique.\u003C\u002Fp>","Ashma Shrestha","2022-05-15",[75,78,81,84,87],{"question":76,"answer":77},"\u003Cp>What is chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a way of separating the parts of a mixture by letting a moving liquid or gas carry them over a material that holds each part back by a different amount, so the parts spread out and separate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":79,"answer":80},"\u003Cp>Who discovered chromatography and what does the name mean?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The botanist Mikhail Tsvet discovered it around 1900 while separating plant pigments on a column. The name comes from the Greek words for \"color\" and \"writing,\" so it means \"color writing.\"\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":82,"answer":83},"\u003Cp>What are the main types of chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Paper, thin layer (TLC), column, gas (GC), high-performance liquid (HPLC), gel filtration (size-exclusion), ion-exchange, affinity, and immunochromatography (lateral flow).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":85,"answer":86},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between the stationary phase and the mobile phase?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The stationary phase stays fixed in place (a solid, or a liquid held on a solid). The mobile phase is the liquid or gas that moves through it and carries the sample. Separation happens because of how strongly each component is held by the stationary phase.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":88,"answer":89},"\u003Cp>What is chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Identifying what is in a mixture, measuring how much of each component is present, and purifying individual substances, in medicine, forensics, food testing, environmental science, and research.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],{"slug":92,"title":93,"description":94,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":95,"createdDate":96,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":97,"tags":113},"thin-layer-chromatography","Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC): Principle, Procedure, and Applications","\u003Cp>Thin layer chromatography (TLC) explained simply: its principle and Rf value, step-by-step procedure, types, adsorbents, and applications, with exam notes.\u003C\u002Fp>","Sushmita Baniya","2022-05-17",[98,101,104,107,110],{"question":99,"answer":100},"\u003Cp>What is thin layer chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a fast way to separate the parts of a mixture by letting a solvent carry them up a coated plate. Each part travels a different distance, so a single sample spot separates into several spots you can compare.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":102,"answer":103},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of TLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Components separate because each one sticks to the solid coating (stationary phase) and dissolves in the moving solvent (mobile phase) to a different degree. Those that prefer the solvent travel further; those that stick to the coating stay low.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":105,"answer":106},"\u003Cp>What is the Rf value and why is it always less than 1?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The Rf value is the distance a compound travels divided by the distance the solvent front travels. Because the solvent carries the compound, the compound can never move further than the solvent, so the Rf is always between 0 and 1.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":108,"answer":109},"\u003Cp>What is TLC used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Checking whether a substance is pure, monitoring whether a chemical reaction is finished, identifying unknown compounds by their Rf value, and separating things like amino acids, sugars, drugs, and plant pigments.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":111,"answer":112},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between TLC and paper chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both separate mixtures, but TLC uses a thin layer of adsorbent on a rigid plate, while paper chromatography uses a sheet of paper. TLC is faster, gives sharper spots, is more sensitive, and can tolerate corrosive detection reagents.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],{"slug":115,"title":116,"description":117,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":118,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":119,"tags":150},"ion-exchange-chromatography","Ion-Exchange Chromatography: Principle, Types and Applications","\u003Cp>Ion-exchange chromatography explained: how it separates molecules by charge, cation vs anion exchangers, the role of pH, elution, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-05",[120,123,126,129,132,135,138,141,144,147],{"question":121,"answer":122},"\u003Cp>What is ion-exchange chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that separates molecules by their electrical charge. A charged resin holds onto molecules of the opposite charge, and they are later released by adding salt.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":124,"answer":125},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of ion-exchange chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Opposite charges attract. Molecules with a charge opposite to the resin bind to it, unbound molecules wash away, and the bound ones are then displaced by increasing the salt concentration or changing the pH.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":127,"answer":128},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a cation and an anion exchanger?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A cation exchanger has negatively charged groups and binds positively charged molecules (cations). An anion exchanger has positively charged groups and binds negatively charged molecules (anions).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":130,"answer":131},"\u003Cp>How are bound molecules eluted?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By raising the salt concentration (or changing the pH). The extra ions compete for the charged sites and push the bound molecules off, usually with the least tightly bound coming off first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":133,"answer":134},"\u003Cp>What is ion-exchange chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly purifying proteins and enzymes, plus water softening and deionization, amino acid analysis, and separating nucleotides.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":136,"answer":137},"\u003Cp>What is affinity chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that purifies one specific molecule by using a partner molecule (a ligand) that binds only the target. The target sticks to the column while everything else washes away, and then the target is released.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":139,"answer":140},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of affinity chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It uses a specific, reversible lock-and-key interaction. The target binds an immobilized ligand, unbound molecules are washed off, and the target is then released by competition or by changing the conditions.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":142,"answer":143},"\u003Cp>What is a ligand in affinity chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The ligand is the molecule attached to the column matrix that specifically binds the target, for example an antibody, an enzyme substrate, or a metal ion that binds a His-tag.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":145,"answer":146},"\u003Cp>How is the bound target eluted?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By adding a free molecule that competes for the binding site (such as imidazole for a His-tag), or by changing conditions such as lowering the pH.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":148,"answer":149},"\u003Cp>What is affinity chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Purifying recombinant (His-tagged) proteins, purifying antibodies with Protein A or G, isolating enzymes and glycoproteins, and removing or detecting specific molecules.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],{"slug":152,"title":153,"description":154,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":95,"createdDate":155,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":156,"tags":175},"hplc-high-performance-liquid-chromatography","High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Principle, Parts, Uses","\u003Cp>High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) explained: its principle, how it works under high pressure, the parts, normal vs reverse phase, and its uses.\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-07-01",[157,160,163,166,169,172],{"question":158,"answer":159},"\u003Cp>What is HPLC in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a machine that separates the parts of a liquid mixture by pumping it under high pressure through a column packed with fine particles. Each part comes out at a different time, and a detector records how much of each is present.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":161,"answer":162},"\u003Cp>How does HPLC work?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A pump pushes a liquid mobile phase through the column at high pressure, a small sample is injected into the stream, the components separate as they move through the column, and a detector measures each one as it leaves, producing a chromatogram of peaks.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":164,"answer":165},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between normal-phase and reverse-phase HPLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In normal-phase HPLC the column is polar and the mobile phase is non-polar. In reverse-phase HPLC (the more common type) the column is non-polar and the mobile phase is polar, so polar compounds elute first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":167,"answer":168},"\u003Cp>What are the main parts of an HPLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Solvent reservoirs, a pump, a degasser, an injector (autosampler), the column, a detector, and a data system.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":170,"answer":171},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between isocratic and gradient elution?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In isocratic elution the mobile-phase composition stays constant throughout the run. In gradient elution it changes during the run, which helps separate complex mixtures.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":173,"answer":174},"\u003Cp>Who developed HPLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It grew out of classical liquid column chromatography in the late 1960s. Csaba Horvath built one of the first modern instruments and coined the term \"high-performance liquid chromatography,\" and J. J. Kirkland and Josef Huber were among the other pioneers of the technique.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],{"slug":177,"title":178,"description":179,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":95,"createdDate":180,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":181,"tags":200},"gas-chromatography-gc-principle-parts-and-uses","Gas Chromatography (GC): Principle, Parts and Uses","\u003Cp>Gas chromatography (GC) explained: its principle and retention time, instrumentation and parts, detector types, GSC vs GLC, and applications, with exam notes.\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-06-15",[182,185,188,191,194,197],{"question":183,"answer":184},"\u003Cp>What is gas chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that separates a mixture of vapors by carrying them through a long column with a gas. Each component travels at its own speed and comes out separately, and a detector records each one as a peak.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":186,"answer":187},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of gas chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Components separate because each one interacts with the stationary phase to a different degree. More volatile compounds that stick less to the column move faster and come out first; less volatile compounds that stick more come out later.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":189,"answer":190},"\u003Cp>What elutes first in gas chromatography\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The most volatile compound, meaning the one with the lowest boiling point and the weakest attraction to the stationary phase, has the shortest retention time and leaves the column first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":192,"answer":193},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between GSC and GLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In gas-solid chromatography (GSC) the stationary phase is a solid and separation is by adsorption. In gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) the stationary phase is a liquid film and separation is by partition. GLC is far more common.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":195,"answer":196},"\u003Cp>Which detector is used in gas chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Several are used depending on the job: the FID for organic compounds, the TCD as a universal detector, the ECD for halogen-containing compounds like pesticides, and the mass spectrometer (GC-MS) for identifying unknowns.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":198,"answer":199},"\u003Cp>Why must the carrier gas be inert?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because its only job is to carry the sample through the column. An unreactive gas takes no part in the separation and does not change the sample.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],{"slug":202,"title":203,"description":204,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":95,"createdDate":205,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":206,"tags":225},"gel-filtration-chromatography","Gel Filtration Chromatography: Principle, Steps & Uses","\u003Cp>Gel filtration (size-exclusion) chromatography explained: how it separates molecules by size, why large molecules elute first, the gels used, and applications.\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-05-19",[207,210,213,216,219,222],{"question":208,"answer":209},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a way to separate molecules by size by passing them through a column of porous gel beads. Large molecules cannot enter the beads and come out first, while small molecules get delayed inside the beads and come out last.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":211,"answer":212},"\u003Cp>What elutes first in gel filtration chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The largest molecules elute first, because they are excluded from the pores of the beads and take the shortest path through the column.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":214,"answer":215},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration chromatography also known as?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), molecular sieve chromatography, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Gel permeation usually refers to separating polymers in organic solvents, while gel filtration usually refers to biological molecules in water.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":217,"answer":218},"\u003Cp>Which gels are used in gel filtration?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Common ones are Sephadex (cross-linked dextran), Sepharose (agarose), and Bio-Gel (polyacrylamide). The pore size of the gel decides the range of molecular sizes it can separate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":220,"answer":221},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly for desalting or exchanging the buffer of a protein sample, for separating proteins by size, and for estimating the molecular weight of an unknown protein.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":223,"answer":224},"\u003Cp>Why is it called \"filtration\" if nothing is filtered out?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The name is historical. No molecule is actually removed; all of them pass through the column, but they emerge at different times according to size.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],{"slug":227,"title":228,"description":229,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":230,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":231,"tags":247},"column-chromatography","Column Chromatography: Principle, Procedure and Applications","\u003Cp>Column chromatography explained: its adsorption principle, how the packed column separates a mixture, the step-by-step procedure, types, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-04",[232,235,238,241,244],{"question":233,"answer":234},"\u003Cp>What is column chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a way to separate and purify the parts of a mixture by passing it down through a tube packed with a solid. Each part travels at a different speed and drips out at a different time, so it can be collected separately.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":236,"answer":237},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of column chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It works mainly by adsorption. Components that stick strongly to the solid packing move slowly and come out later, while components that prefer the solvent move quickly and come out first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":239,"answer":240},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between column chromatography and paper or TLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Column chromatography is preparative: it lets you collect the purified components in useful amounts. Paper chromatography and TLC are mainly analytical, telling you what is present rather than letting you recover much material.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":242,"answer":243},"\u003Cp>What comes out of the column first?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The component that is least strongly held by the packing. With a polar adsorbent such as silica, the least polar component elutes first and the most polar elutes last.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":245,"answer":246},"\u003Cp>Is HPLC a type of column chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. HPLC is column chromatography run with very fine packing and a high-pressure pump, which makes it far faster and sharper.\u003C\u002Fp>",[66],{"slug":249,"title":250,"description":251,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":230,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":252,"tags":253},"affinity-chromatography","Affinity Chromatography: Principle, Procedure & Applications","\u003Cp>Affinity chromatography explained: how it purifies a target by specific binding to a ligand, the types (His-tag, antibody), elution, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[66],{"enabled":255,"threads":256,"total":257},true,[],0,[259,265,271,277,283,288,294,299,305,308,315],{"slug":260,"name":43,"description":261,"image":262,"body":263,"postCount":264},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":266,"name":72,"description":267,"image":268,"body":269,"postCount":270},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":272,"name":95,"description":273,"image":274,"body":275,"postCount":276},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":278,"name":279,"description":273,"image":280,"body":281,"postCount":282},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":273,"image":42,"body":286,"postCount":287},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":289,"name":290,"description":291,"image":42,"body":292,"postCount":293},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":295,"name":296,"description":297,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":300,"name":301,"description":273,"image":302,"body":303,"postCount":304},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":297,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":309,"name":310,"description":311,"image":312,"body":313,"postCount":314},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":319,"body":320,"postCount":298},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[322,329,335,340,345,350,354,358,362,367,371,376,380,385,390,394,398,401,406,411,415,419,423,428,432,436,440,444,449,454,458,462,466,470,474,478,482,486,490,494,498,502,506,510,514,518,522,526,531,535,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,571,575,579,583,587,591,595,599,603,607,610,614],{"slug":323,"name":324,"description":325,"image":326,"body":327,"postCount":328},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":330,"name":331,"description":332,"image":42,"body":333,"postCount":334},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":341,"name":342,"description":343,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":346,"name":347,"description":348,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":359,"name":360,"description":361,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":370,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":374,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":375},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":375},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":42,"image":42,"body":397,"postCount":287},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":66,"name":399,"description":42,"image":42,"body":400,"postCount":384},"Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":402,"name":403,"description":404,"image":42,"body":405,"postCount":366},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":410,"postCount":287},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":437,"name":438,"description":439,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":441,"name":442,"description":443,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":448},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":450,"name":451,"description":452,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":463,"name":464,"description":465,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":467,"name":468,"description":469,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":375},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":471,"name":472,"description":473,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":475,"name":476,"description":477,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":479,"name":480,"description":481,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":483,"name":484,"description":485,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":448},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":487,"name":488,"description":489,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":491,"name":492,"description":493,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":497,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":499,"name":500,"description":501,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":503,"name":504,"description":505,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":509},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":511,"name":512,"description":513,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":515,"name":516,"description":517,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":519,"name":520,"description":521,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":523,"name":524,"description":525,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":527,"name":528,"description":529,"image":42,"body":530,"postCount":287},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":532,"name":533,"description":534,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":550,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":572,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":509},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":582,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":584,"name":585,"description":586,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":590,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":592,"name":593,"description":594,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":596,"name":597,"description":598,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":600,"name":601,"description":602,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":604,"name":605,"description":606,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":613,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":615,"name":616,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":509},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]