[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fAOYyEqeEWASFUThRzIWESAXGq0Mvvhd4OF_1jDa8GM4":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":243,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":306},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":64,"related":65,"comments":239},"nephelometry-and-turbidimetry-principle-difference-applications","Nephelometry and Turbidimetry: Principle, Difference, and Applications","\u003Cp>How nephelometry and turbidimetry measure antigen-antibody complexes by light, how the two differ (scattered vs. transmitted light), and why antigen excess causes a falsely low result.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-31",false,"lab-equipment","A CRP comes back surprisingly low on a patient who looks clearly septic. The analyzer is working and the reagent is in date. Before the result is believed, one property of the method has to be ruled out: at very high concentrations, the light-based assay can read falsely low. Knowing why is what separates a trusted number from a dangerous one.\n\n## What nephelometry and turbidimetry measure\n\nNephelometry and turbidimetry are two ways of measuring how much light an [antigen-antibody reaction](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fantigen-antibody-reactions\u002F) scatters or blocks. When a soluble antigen meets its specific antibody in solution, the two form immune complexes. Enough of these complexes make the solution cloudy (turbid). The more antigen-antibody complex forms, the cloudier the solution becomes, and that **cloudiness can be measured by light**. Because the amount of complex depends on the amount of analyte, the light measurement becomes a quantitative measure of the analyte.\n\nBoth methods are used to quantify specific proteins in serum, including C-reactive protein, immunoglobulins, complement components, and, in appropriate assay formats, [anti-streptolysin O (ASO)](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fanti-streptolysin-o-aso-test-principle-procedure-and-interpretation\u002F) and rheumatoid factor. They turn an antigen-antibody reaction that agglutination reads only as present or absent into a number.\n\n## The core difference: scattered light versus transmitted light\n\nThis is the distinction the whole topic turns on, and the one most worth getting right.\n\n1. **Turbidimetry measures the light that gets through.** A light beam is passed through the cloudy sample, and the detector sits directly in line with the beam, on the far side. Immune complexes block and scatter some of the light, so less light reaches the detector. Turbidimetry measures that reduction in transmitted light. It is, in effect, measuring the sample the way a spectrophotometer measures absorbance, and it can often be run on an ordinary clinical chemistry analyzer.\n2. **Nephelometry measures the light that bounces off.** The same cloudy sample is illuminated, but the detector sits at an angle to the incident beam, usually around 90 degrees or another forward angle. It measures the light scattered sideways by the immune complexes, not the light passing straight through. More complex means more scatter reaching the angled detector.\n\nThe practical consequences follow directly from the geometry. **Turbidimetry reads a decrease in a large signal, so it is less sensitive at low concentrations**, where the decrease is small and hard to distinguish from the full beam.\n\nNephelometry reads an increase from near zero, because with no complexes there is almost no scattered light to detect, so a small amount of scatter stands out clearly. That makes **nephelometry generally more sensitive for low analyte concentrations**, at the cost of needing a dedicated instrument with an angled detector.\n\n## How the measurement is made\n\nIn both methods the sequence is the same in principle. The patient sample is mixed with a reagent containing antibody specific to the target protein. Immune complexes form over a short, controlled time. The instrument then measures either transmitted light (turbidimetry) or scattered light (nephelometry), and converts that reading to a concentration against a calibration curve made from known standards.\n\nTwo refinements are common. Latex-enhanced (particle-enhanced) formats attach the antibody to tiny latex particles, so each antigen-antibody event produces a much larger light-scattering complex; this raises sensitivity and is how many [CRP](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fc-reactive-protein-crp-test\u002F) and RA assays reach low detection limits. Rate (kinetic) measurement reads how fast the complexes form in the first seconds or minutes, rather than waiting for a fixed endpoint, which shortens turnaround and reduces some interferences.\n\n## Interpretation\n\n**The signal is proportional to the analyte, within a range.** More analyte means more immune complex, means more scatter (nephelometry) or more blocked light (turbidimetry). The instrument reads that against a calibration curve to report a concentration. This proportionality holds only across the assay's validated range.\n\n**Antigen excess and the prozone effect: the central trap.** The proportionality breaks at high analyte concentrations. When antigen is in large excess relative to antibody, it saturates the antibody binding sites individually and prevents the large cross-linked lattices that scatter light from forming. The result is that a very high concentration produces a falsely low signal. This is antigen excess, the same phenomenon called the prozone effect in agglutination and the high-dose hook effect in sandwich immunoassays. It is the reason a genuinely high CRP can read deceptively low. Read more about prozone effect in this [antigen-antibody reaction article. ](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fantigen-antibody-reactions\u002F)\n\nModern analyzers include an antigen-excess check (for example, a re-addition of antigen or a kinetic check) to flag samples in excess, but the interpreter still has to know the trap exists. The bench response is the same across all these methods: if the result does not fit the clinical picture and excess is suspected, dilute the sample and retest. A truly high sample will read higher on dilution, not lower, once it moves back into the proportional range.\n\n**A number still needs a reference interval.** A nephelometric or turbidimetric result is a quantity, not a verdict. It is interpreted against the analyte's reference interval and the clinical question.\n\n## Limitations\n\nBoth methods depend on optically clear starting samples. Lipemia (fatty serum), hemolysis, and particulate matter scatter or absorb light on their own and can falsely raise or distort the reading. The antigen-excess\u002Fprozone effect can falsely lower a high result unless the analyzer checks for it. Nephelometry needs a dedicated instrument with an angled detector, which turbidimetry does not always require. As with all immunoassays, results can be affected by interfering antibodies and by poor sample handling.\n\n## How to remember\n\nAnchor the pair on where the detector sits, because that one fact reconstructs everything else:\n\n- **Turbidimetry: detector in line, reads light that got through (a decrease).** Think of looking straight at a foggy headlight and seeing it dimmed.\n- **Nephelometry: detector at an angle, reads light that scattered off (an increase from zero).** Think of seeing fog only because a side light catches it. Because it reads up from near zero, nephelometry is more sensitive at low levels.\n\nFor the trap, use one word across the cluster: **excess reads low.** Prozone (agglutination), antigen excess (nephelometry\u002Fturbidimetry), and hook effect (sandwich immunoassay) are the same idea. When a high sample reads low, dilute and retest.\n\n## Key exam facts\n\n| Fact | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| What is measured | Light scattered or blocked by antigen-antibody immune complexes |\n| Turbidimetry detector | In line with the beam; measures reduction in transmitted light |\n| Nephelometry detector | At an angle (often \\~90°); measures scattered light |\n| More sensitive at low concentration | Nephelometry (reads up from near-zero background) |\n| Runs on a general chemistry analyzer | Turbidimetry (often); nephelometry needs a dedicated instrument |\n| Signal vs. analyte | Proportional, within the validated range |\n| Key false-low trap | Antigen excess \u002F prozone effect (dilute and retest) |\n| Sensitivity-boosting format | Latex (particle)-enhanced |\n| Common applications | CRP, immunoglobulins, complement, ASO, rheumatoid factor |\n| Sample interferences | Lipemia, hemolysis, particulates |\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n**\"Nephelometry and turbidimetry are the same thing.\"** They measure the same reaction but read different light. Turbidimetry measures the light that passes through the sample (a decrease); nephelometry measures the light scattered at an angle (an increase from near zero). That geometry is why nephelometry is generally more sensitive at low concentrations.\n\n**\"A higher concentration always gives a higher reading.\"** Not at antigen excess. When analyte is very high, immune complexes stop forming properly and the signal falls, so a high sample can read falsely low. This is the prozone\u002Fantigen-excess effect. Dilute and retest if the result does not fit.\n\n**\"Turbidimetry needs a special machine.\"** Often it does not; it can run on a routine clinical chemistry analyzer because it measures transmitted light like absorbance. Nephelometry is the one that needs a dedicated angled-detector instrument.\n\n**\"The nephelometry result is the diagnosis.\"** It is a quantity, read against the reference interval for the specific analyte and the clinical question. The method gives the number; the analyte page and the clinical context give the meaning.\n\n**\"This is unrelated to the prozone effect I learned in agglutination.\"** It is the same effect. Agglutination calls it prozone, nephelometry calls it antigen excess, sandwich immunoassays call it the hook effect. One concept, three names.\n\n## References\n\n1. Tille PM. *Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology.* 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.\n2. Procop GW, et al. *Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology.* 7th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2017.\n3. Leber AL, editor. *Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook.* 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016. doi:10.1128\u002F9781683670438.CMPH",[49,52,55,58,61],{"question":50,"answer":51},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between nephelometry and turbidimetry?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both measure antigen-antibody complexes using light, but the detector sits in a different place. Turbidimetry measures the light passing straight through the sample, which decreases as the sample gets cloudier. Nephelometry measures the light scattered at an angle to the beam, which increases as more complexes form. Because nephelometry reads up from an almost-zero background, it is generally more sensitive at low concentrations.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":53,"answer":54},"\u003Cp>Why does a very high sample sometimes give a low result?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>This is the antigen-excess or prozone effect. When the analyte is present in large excess, it prevents the large antigen-antibody complexes that scatter light from forming, so the signal falls and a high concentration reads falsely low. The sample is diluted and retested; a truly high sample reads higher after dilution.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":56,"answer":57},"\u003Cp>Which tests use nephelometry or turbidimetry?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They are used to quantify specific serum proteins, including C-reactive protein, immunoglobulins, complement components, and, in appropriate formats, anti-streptolysin O and rheumatoid factor.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":59,"answer":60},"\u003Cp>Can turbidimetry run on a normal analyzer?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Often yes. Because turbidimetry measures reduction in transmitted light, similar to absorbance, it can be performed on many routine clinical chemistry analyzers. Nephelometry needs a dedicated instrument with a detector set at an angle to measure scattered light.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":62,"answer":63},"\u003Cp>What is latex-enhanced nephelometry?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a version where the antibody is bound to small latex particles, so each antigen-antibody reaction forms a larger complex that scatters more light. This raises sensitivity and is how many CRP and rheumatoid factor assays reach low detection limits.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[66,93,118,149,176,197,206,215],{"slug":67,"title":68,"description":69,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":70,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":71,"image":42,"faq":72,"tags":91},"antigen-antibody-reactions","Antigen-Antibody Reactions: Types, Stages, and How Each Is Used","The full framework of antigen-antibody reactions: the three stages of binding, and the main reaction types (agglutination, precipitation, complement fixation, neutralization, and labeled immunoassays), with what each detects and where it is used.","2010-04-20","immunology",[73,76,79,82,85,88],{"question":74,"answer":75},"What is an antigen-antibody reaction?","It is the specific binding of an antibody to the antigen that induced its formation. This binding is the basis of humoral immunity and of the serological tests used to diagnose infection and identify organisms.",{"question":77,"answer":78},"Is antigen-antibody binding reversible?","Yes. The binding is held by non-covalent forces (hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals forces) and is reversible. It is not a covalent, permanent bond.",{"question":80,"answer":81},"What are the three stages of an antigen-antibody reaction?","The primary stage is the initial, invisible binding. The secondary stage produces visible effects such as agglutination, precipitation, complement fixation, and neutralization. The tertiary stage covers the in-vivo consequences, including protection and immunopathology.",{"question":83,"answer":84},"What is the difference between agglutination and precipitation?","Agglutination requires a particulate antigen (or a soluble antigen coated onto a particle) and produces visible clumps. Precipitation requires a soluble antigen and produces an insoluble visible mass. Agglutination is generally more sensitive for detecting antibody.",{"question":86,"answer":87},"What is the prozone phenomenon?","When antibody is present in large excess, it cannot cross-link antigen efficiently and no visible reaction occurs, producing a false-negative. Antigen excess causes the same problem (postzone). Testing serial dilutions reveals the true result, which is strongest at equivalence.",{"question":89,"answer":90},"What are the main types of antigen-antibody reactions?","Agglutination, precipitation, complement fixation, neutralization, and labeled immunoassays (immunofluorescence, ELISA, radioimmunoassay). Each is the basis of a different family of diagnostic tests.",[92],"immunoassays",{"slug":94,"title":95,"description":96,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":97,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":71,"image":42,"faq":98,"tags":117},"anti-streptolysin-o-aso-test-principle-procedure-and-interpretation","ASO Titer Test: How to Interpret Results (Single vs Paired) and Cutoffs","What an ASO titer actually means: adult vs child cutoffs, when a single titer is diagnostic vs when you need paired sera, and why a raised ASO alone never confirms rheumatic fever. Bench procedure included.","2013-08-08",[99,102,105,108,111,114],{"question":100,"answer":101},"\u003Cp>Does a high ASO titer mean I currently have a strep infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. A high ASO titer means you had a group A streptococcal infection recently, usually within the past several weeks. The test is designed for situations where the infection has already cleared and throat cultures are negative, which is exactly when post-streptococcal complications appear.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":103,"answer":104},"\u003Cp>What is a normal ASO titer?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It depends on age and location. As a general guide, titers above about 200 IU\u002FmL in adults and about 300 IU\u002FmL in school-aged children are considered elevated. Children have higher normal baselines, and the true cutoff is the 80th percentile of the local healthy population.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":106,"answer":107},"\u003Cp>Why do I need two blood samples for an ASO test?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A rise of twofold or more between an acute sample and a convalescent sample taken 2 to 4 weeks later is the strongest evidence of recent infection. A single value cannot tell you whether the titer is rising, steady, or already falling. Where follow-up is difficult, a single titer above the age-specific normal limit is accepted instead.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":109,"answer":110},"\u003Cp>Can ASO confirm rheumatic fever?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. An elevated ASO confirms only that a recent streptococcal infection occurred. It satisfies one element of the modified Jones criteria and must be combined with clinical findings to diagnose rheumatic fever.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":112,"answer":113},"\u003Cp>When should anti-DNase B be used instead of ASO?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>After skin infections (pyoderma, impetigo), the ASO response is weak because skin cholesterol neutralizes streptolysin O. Anti-DNase B is the more reliable marker in that setting, and testing both antibodies detects more true infections than either alone.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":115,"answer":116},"\u003Cp>Why can't plasma be used for the ASO latex test?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Plasma contains fibrinogen, which can cause non-specific clumping of the latex particles and a false result. Only fresh serum should be used.\u003C\u002Fp>",[92],{"slug":119,"title":120,"description":121,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":122,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":71,"image":42,"faq":123,"tags":148},"c-reactive-protein-crp-test","C-reactive Protein (CRP) Test: Principle, Procedure, Interpretation, and Uses","\u003Cp>CRP is a key hospital marker of inflammation. Learn how CRP is measured, how to read a result in mg\u002FL, hs-CRP for heart risk, CRP versus ESR, and what a negative result does not rule out.\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-05-03",[124,127,130,133,136,139,142,145],{"question":125,"answer":126},"\u003Cp>What does a positive CRP test mean?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It means C-reactive protein is present at or above the test's detection level, which indicates inflammation somewhere in the body. It does not identify the cause or location. The result is interpreted with the clinical picture and other tests.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":128,"answer":129},"\u003Cp>What does a negative or normal CRP mean?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It means CRP is below the normal level, usually under 10 mg\u002FL. This does not rule out infection or inflammation, because early, localized, or low-grade processes can occur with a normal CRP. In the first several hours after an insult, CRP may not have risen yet.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":131,"answer":132},"\u003Cp>What is a normal CRP level?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In most laboratories, less than 10 mg\u002FL in adults. The exact cutoff varies by lab, so read the result against the range on the report.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":134,"answer":135},"\u003Cp>What CRP level indicates a serious bacterial infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>There is no single cutoff, but values above 100 mg\u002FL shift the probability strongly toward serious bacterial infection. Lower values do not exclude it, and high values also occur after surgery, trauma, and in some other conditions.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":137,"answer":138},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between CRP and hs-CRP?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They measure the same protein. Standard CRP is used for acute illness. hs-CRP uses a more sensitive assay to detect very low levels and is used to estimate cardiovascular risk.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":140,"answer":141},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between CRP and ESR?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both indicate inflammation. CRP rises and falls within hours to days, so it reflects current, changing inflammation. ESR changes over days to weeks, so it is better for chronic conditions. CRP is affected by fewer non-inflammatory factors.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":143,"answer":144},"\u003Cp>What does CRP with dilution mean?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In the semi-quantitative latex method, the serum is diluted in steps and the highest dilution that still shows agglutination is the titer. Multiplying the titer by the reagent sensitivity estimates the CRP concentration.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":146,"answer":147},"\u003Cp>Why would a very sick patient have a negative CRP latex result?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>This can be the prozone effect. A very high CRP concentration can prevent the visible clumping reaction, giving a false negative. Retesting a diluted sample corrects it.\u003C\u002Fp>",[92],{"slug":150,"title":151,"description":152,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":153,"createdDate":154,"lastUpdatedDate":155,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":156,"tags":175},"electroporator-principle-parts-and-uses","Electroporator: How Electrical Pulses Open Cell Membranes, Principle, Parts, and Uses","How an electroporator uses a brief high-voltage pulse to open transient pores in the cell membrane so DNA can enter, the difference between reversible electroporation for transformation and irreversible electroporation for tissue ablation, its parts, and its uses.","Ashma Shrestha","2023-09-19","2026-08-01",[157,160,163,166,169,172],{"question":158,"answer":159},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of an electroporator?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It applies a brief, high-voltage electrical pulse to a cell suspension. The pulse raises the voltage across the cell membrane past a threshold, which forms transient pores in the lipid bilayer. While the pores are open, DNA or other molecules enter the cell. If the pulse is within the survivable range, the pores reseal and the cell lives, now carrying the introduced material.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":161,"answer":162},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between reversible and irreversible electroporation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In reversible electroporation the pores reseal after the pulse and the cell survives, which is the goal of transformation and transfection. In irreversible electroporation the pulse is strong enough that the pores do not reseal and the cell dies. Irreversible electroporation is used deliberately in medicine to ablate tumors without heat.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":164,"answer":165},"\u003Cp>Why did my electroporation kill the cells?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Most often the pulse was too strong or too long, pushing the membrane past the reversible threshold into irreversible electroporation. Arcing from high-salt samples or air bubbles also kills cells. Lowering the field strength and washing cells into low-salt medium usually fixes it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":167,"answer":168},"\u003Cp>Why does the electrode gap of the cuvette matter?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because the cell responds to field strength, which is the voltage divided by the gap between the electrodes. The same voltage gives a stronger field in a 1 mm cuvette than in a 4 mm one. Using the wrong gap for a protocol changes the actual field the cells experience.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":170,"answer":171},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between exponential-decay and square-wave electroporators?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An exponential-decay electroporator discharges a capacitor, so the voltage starts high and falls exponentially; it is standard for bacteria and yeast. A square-wave electroporator holds the voltage constant for a set time then stops; it is gentler and better for fragile mammalian cells.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":173,"answer":174},"\u003Cp>Is electroporation better than chemical (heat-shock) transformation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Electroporation is usually more efficient and works with a wide range of cells, but it needs specialized equipment and low-salt samples to avoid arcing. Chemical transformation is simpler and needs no instrument but is generally less efficient. The choice depends on the cell type, the efficiency needed, and the equipment available.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":177,"title":178,"description":179,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":180,"createdDate":181,"lastUpdatedDate":182,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":183,"tags":196},"ultrasonication-principle-parts-and-application","Ultrasonication: How Cavitation Breaks Open Cells (Principle, Parts, Uses)","How ultrasonication works: sound waves create and collapse tiny bubbles (cavitation) whose implosion tears cells open. Its parts, uses in cell lysis, and why you must keep the sample cold.","Samikshya Acharya","2023-06-18","2026-08-21",[184,187,190,193],{"question":185,"answer":186},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of ultrasonication?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Ultrasonication uses high-frequency sound waves (20 kHz and above) to create tiny bubbles in a liquid, a process called acoustic cavitation. These bubbles grow and then violently implode, and the shear forces from their collapse tear cells and particles apart. It is the imploding bubbles, not the sound directly, that do the work.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":188,"answer":189},"\u003Cp>What is cavitation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Cavitation is the formation and collapse of tiny vapor bubbles caused by the pressure changes of a sound wave in a liquid. The low-pressure phase of the wave forms the bubbles, and the high-pressure phase implodes them, releasing intense local shear forces and heat.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":191,"answer":192},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a probe and a bath sonicator?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A probe (horn) sonicator dips directly into the sample and delivers intense, focused energy for fast cell lysis, but it heats the sample quickly and handles one tube at a time. A bath sonicator passes ultrasound through a water bath, which is gentler and processes several tubes at once without contact, better for degassing, cleaning, and mild disruption.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":194,"answer":195},"\u003Cp>What is ultrasonication used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Its main laboratory use is cell lysis, rupturing cells to release proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids for extraction. It is also used for degassing liquids, mixing and dispersing particles, preparing nanoparticles, and cleaning instruments.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":198,"title":199,"description":200,"seoTitle":199,"seoDescription":201,"author":153,"createdDate":202,"lastUpdatedDate":203,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":204,"tags":205},"microtome-parts-types-and-uses","Microtome: Parts, Sectioning Steps, Types, and Common Errors","Microtome parts and types, and the part that decides a usable slide: how to cut a section at 3 to 5 micrometers and fix the common faults like chatter, compression, and alternating thick-thin sections.","Identify key microtome parts, compare rotary, sliding, freezing, and ultramicrotome designs, and prevent section compression, chatter, and folds.","2023-04-12","2026-08-22",[],[],{"slug":207,"title":208,"description":209,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":153,"createdDate":210,"lastUpdatedDate":211,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":212,"tags":213},"equipment-required-for-chemistry-laboratory","Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus: Names, Uses, and How Each One Works","\u003Cp>Every common chemistry lab apparatus explained by what it does and why, from Bunsen burner and burette to water trough, beehive shelf, and Kipp's apparatus, with the uses students are actually asked about.\u003C\u002Fp>","2023-03-31","2026-08-20",[],[214],"laboratory-glassware",{"slug":216,"title":217,"description":218,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":180,"createdDate":219,"lastUpdatedDate":220,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":221,"tags":237},"hot-plate-parts-types-and-applications","Hot Plate: Parts, Types, Uses, and Hot Plate vs. Bunsen Burner and Stirrer","How a laboratory hot plate works, its parts and types, when to use a hot plate versus a Bunsen burner, magnetic stirrer, or water bath, and the mistakes that scorch media and crack glassware.","2023-03-27","2026-07-30",[222,225,228,231,234],{"question":223,"answer":224},"\u003Cp>What is a hot plate used for in a microbiology laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A hot plate is used mainly to prepare and melt culture media and to warm reagents. With a built-in magnetic stirrer, it also dissolves solutes evenly into buffers and solutions while heating them.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":226,"answer":227},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a hot plate and a hot plate stirrer?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A plain hot plate only heats the sample. A hot plate stirrer adds an electromagnet beneath the surface that spins a magnetic stir bar in the solution, so the sample is heated and mixed at the same time. For media and buffer preparation, the stirrer version is usually preferred.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":229,"answer":230},"\u003Cp>When should I use a water bath instead of a hot plate?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Use a water bath when a sample needs gentle, even heating at a precise temperature, such as holding serum or reagents at 37°C or 56°C. A hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat that can scorch or overshoot, so it is the wrong tool for heat-sensitive work.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":232,"answer":233},"\u003Cp>Why should flammable solvents not be heated on a hot plate?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A hot plate surface can reach about 350°C, which is well above the flash point of common solvents like ether, acetone, and hexane. Heating these on an open hot plate can ignite them, so they are heated by other means such as a water bath in a fume hood.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":235,"answer":236},"\u003Cp>Why does my agar scorch on the hot plate?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Scorching happens when the heat is set too high and the media is not stirred. Because a hot plate heats from the bottom by direct contact, the layer touching the plate burns before the rest melts. Use moderate heat with stirring, or melt agar in a water bath or by autoclaving.\u003C\u002Fp>",[238],"laboratory-heating-equipment",{"enabled":240,"threads":241,"total":242},true,[],0,[244,250,256,263,268,273,279,284,290,293,300],{"slug":245,"name":43,"description":246,"image":247,"body":248,"postCount":249},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",491,{"slug":251,"name":153,"description":252,"image":253,"body":254,"postCount":255},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":257,"name":258,"description":259,"image":260,"body":261,"postCount":262},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":264,"name":180,"description":259,"image":265,"body":266,"postCount":267},"samikshya-acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":269,"name":270,"description":259,"image":42,"body":271,"postCount":272},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":274,"name":275,"description":276,"image":42,"body":277,"postCount":278},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":280,"name":281,"description":282,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":283},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":285,"name":286,"description":259,"image":287,"body":288,"postCount":289},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":282,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":283},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":297,"body":298,"postCount":299},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",55,{"slug":301,"name":302,"description":303,"image":304,"body":305,"postCount":283},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[307,314,320,325,330,335,339,343,347,352,356,361,365,370,375,380,384,388,393,398,402,406,410,413,417,421,425,429,434,439,443,447,451,456,460,464,468,472,476,480,484,488,492,496,500,504,508,512,516,519,523,527,531,535,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,571,575,579,583,587,591,594,598,601,604,607,610,613,616,619,622,625,628,631,634,637],{"slug":308,"name":309,"description":310,"image":311,"body":312,"postCount":313},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":317,"image":42,"body":318,"postCount":319},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":321,"name":322,"description":323,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":324},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":326,"name":327,"description":328,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":331,"name":332,"description":333,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":319},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":340,"name":341,"description":342,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":319},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":344,"name":345,"description":346,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":319},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":353,"name":354,"description":355,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":357,"name":358,"description":359,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":360},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",22,{"slug":362,"name":363,"description":364,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":366,"name":367,"description":368,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":369},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",21,{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":42,"image":42,"body":383,"postCount":272},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":42,"image":42,"body":387,"postCount":369},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":392,"postCount":351},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":394,"name":395,"description":396,"image":42,"body":397,"postCount":272},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":399,"name":400,"description":401,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":92,"name":411,"description":412,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",{"slug":414,"name":415,"description":416,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":418,"name":419,"description":420,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":422,"name":423,"description":424,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":426,"name":427,"description":428,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":430,"name":431,"description":432,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":433},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":435,"name":436,"description":437,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":369},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":455},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":457,"name":458,"description":459,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":461,"name":462,"description":463,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":465,"name":466,"description":467,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":369},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":469,"name":470,"description":471,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":433},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":473,"name":474,"description":475,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":483,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":491,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":493,"name":494,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":495},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":497,"name":498,"description":499,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":503,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":319},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":505,"name":506,"description":507,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":509,"name":510,"description":511,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":238,"name":513,"description":514,"image":42,"body":515,"postCount":272},"Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":214,"name":517,"description":518,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":520,"name":521,"description":522,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":524,"name":525,"description":526,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":528,"name":529,"description":530,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":283},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":532,"name":533,"description":534,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":369},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":324},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":550,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":495},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":572,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":582,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":584,"name":585,"description":586,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":590,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":592,"name":593,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":283},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":595,"name":596,"description":597,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":599,"name":600,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":495},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":602,"name":603,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":605,"name":606,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":614,"name":615,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":495},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":617,"name":618,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":620,"name":621,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":495},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":626,"name":627,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":433},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":629,"name":630,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":632,"name":633,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":635,"name":636,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":495},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":638,"name":639,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]