[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fvFO6vHz1ZqCn1WENY6srCTQYCS_jgei6bALkA3DvHIU":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":116,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":181},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":50,"related":52,"comments":112},"mcq-in-microbiology-immunology-questions-and-answers-with-explanation","Immunology MCQs With Answers and Explanations","\u003Cp>Immunology multiple choice questions with answers and explanations covering active and passive immunity, antibodies, B and T cells, self-tolerance, and vaccines. A foundation for first-year MBBS microbiology.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2012-11-27","2026-08-30",false,"mcqs","Fifteen multiple choice questions to check your understanding of basic immunology: definitions, terms, and core concepts, with a full answer key and explanations at the end. Write down your answers first, then check them against the key.\n\n![ - Image source: biorenders.com](\u002Fblogs\u002FMCQs-immunology-basic-concepts.png)1\\. Naturally acquired active immunity is most likely acquired through which of the following processes?\\\na. Vaccination \\\nb. Drinking colostrum \\\nc. Natural birth \\\nd. Infection with a disease-causing organism followed by recovery\n\n2\\. Which of the following conveys the longest-lasting immunity to an infectious agent?\\\na. Naturally acquired passive immunity \\\nb. Artificially acquired passive immunity \\\nc. Naturally acquired active immunity \\\nd. All of these \\\ne. None of these\n\n3\\. Which substances will not stimulate an immune response unless they are bound to a larger molecule?\\\na. Antigen \\\nb. Virus \\\nc. Hapten \\\nd. Miligen \\\ne. Antibody\n\n4\\. B and T cells are produced by stem cells that are formed in the:\\\na. Bone marrow \\\nb. Liver\\\nc. Circulatory system \\\nd. Spleen \\\ne. Lymph nodes\n\n5\\. B cells mature in the \\_*\\_ while T cells mature in the \\_*\\_\\\na. Thymus \u002F bone marrow and gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) \\\nb. Spleen \u002F bone marrow and GALT \\\nc. Bone marrow and GALT \u002F thymus \\\nd. Liver \u002F kidneys\n\n6\\. Which of the following immune cells or molecules are most effective at destroying intracellular pathogens?\\\na. T helper cells \\\nb. B cells \\\nc. Antibodies \\\nd. Complement \\\ne. T cytolytic cells\n\n7\\. A living microbe with reduced virulence that is used for vaccination is considered:\\\na. A toxoid \\\nb. Dormant \\\nc. Virulent \\\nd. Attenuated \\\ne. Denatured\n\n8\\. B cells that produce and release large amounts of antibodies are called:\\\na. Memory cells \\\nb. Basophils \\\nc. Plasma cells \\\nd. Killer cells \\\ne. Neutrophils\n\n9\\. The specificity of an antibody is due to: \\\na. Its valence \\\nb. The heavy chains \\\nc. The Fc portion of the molecule \\\nd. The variable portion of the heavy and light chains\n\n10\\. In agglutination reactions the antigen is a \\_*\\_ and in precipitation reactions the antigen is a \\_*\\_\\\na. Whole cell \u002F soluble molecule \\\nb. Soluble molecule \u002F whole cell \\\nc. Bacterium \u002F virus \\\nd. Protein \u002F carbohydrate \\\ne. Protein \u002F antibody\n\n11\\. B cells are activated by:\\\na. Complement \\\nb. Antibody \\\nc. Interferon \\\nd. Memory cells \\\ne. Antigen\n\n12\\. Fusion between a plasma cell and a tumor cell creates a: \\\na. Myeloma \\\nb. Natural killer cell \\\nc. Lymphoblast \\\nd. Lymphoma \\\ne. Hybridoma\n\n13\\. Monoclonal antibodies recognize a single:\\\na. Antigen \\\nb. Bacterium \\\nc. Epitope \\\nd. B cell \\\ne. Virus\n\n14\\. Cell-mediated immunity is carried out by \\_*\\_ while humoral immunity is mainly carried out by \\_*\\_\\\na. B cells \u002F T cells \\\nb. Epitopes \u002F antigens \\\nc. T cells \u002F B cells \\\nd. Antibodies \u002F antigens \\\ne. Antibodies \u002F phagocytes\n\n15\\. The ability of the immune system to recognize self-antigens versus non-self antigens is an example of:\\\na. Specific immunity \\\nb. Self-tolerance or immunological tolerance \\\nc. Cell-mediated immunity \\\nd. Antigenic immunity \\\ne. Humoral immunity\n\n## Browse other immunology MCQs by topic:\n\n1. [ Antibodies and Immunoglobulins](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmcq-immunology-antibodies\u002F)\n2. [ The Complement System](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmcqs-in-immunology-complement-system-31-40\u002F)\n3. [ Monoclonal Antibodies, MHC, and Antigen Presentation](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmcq-in-medical-microbiology-immunology-mcqs-11-20\u002F)\n4. [ Innate Immunity and Immune Cells](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmultiple-choice-questions-on-basic-immunology-concepts\u002F)\n5. [ Hypersensitivity and Clinical Immunology ](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmcq-immunology-3\u002F)\n\n## Answer key\n\n 1. d. Infection with a disease-causing organism followed by recovery\n 2. c. Naturally acquired active immunity\n 3. c. Hapten\n 4. a. Bone marrow\n 5. c. Bone marrow and GALT \u002F thymus\n 6. e. T cytolytic cells\n 7. d. Attenuated\n 8. c. Plasma cells\n 9. d. The variable portion of the heavy and light chains\n10. a. Whole cell \u002F soluble molecule\n11. e. Antigen\n12. e. Hybridoma\n13. c. Epitope\n14. c. T cells \u002F B cells\n15. b. Self-tolerance or immunological tolerance\n\n## Why these are the answers\n\n**1.** Infection with a disease-causing organism followed by recovery. Naturally acquired active immunity develops when a person meets a live pathogen in the ordinary course of life, mounts their own immune response, recovers, and is left with memory cells. The word active means the person's own immune system did the work; naturally acquired means it happened through natural exposure, not a vaccine. Vaccination is artificially acquired active immunity, and colostrum or placental transfer gives passive immunity.\n\n**2.** Naturally acquired active immunity. Active immunity lasts far longer than passive immunity, because the host makes their own antibodies and, crucially, memory cells that persist for years. Passive immunity (whether from breast milk or an injected antibody preparation) fades within weeks to months once the borrowed antibodies are cleared. Among the options given, the only active form is naturally acquired active immunity, so it provides the most durable protection.\n\n**3.** Hapten. A hapten is a small molecule that can bind an antibody but is too small to trigger an immune response on its own. It becomes immunogenic only when it attaches to a larger carrier protein. This is why some small drug molecules cause allergy only after binding body proteins. (Miligen is not a real term and is included as a distractor.)\n\n**4.** Bone marrow. Both B and T lymphocytes arise from hematopoietic stem cells, and in the fully developed human those stem cells reside in the bone marrow. Blood formation shifts location during development (the fetal liver is an early site), but the definitive lifelong source of the stem cells that give rise to both lineages is the bone marrow.\n\n**5.** Bone marrow and GALT \u002F thymus. The clean way to remember this is that T cells are thymus-derived, they mature in the thymus, while B cells mature in the bone marrow (the option also lists GALT, which plays this role in some species). The key contrast to carry is simply: T cells mature in the thymus, B cells in the bone marrow.\n\n**6.** T cytolytic cells. Pathogens that live inside host cells, such as viruses and some bacteria, are hidden from circulating antibodies, which can only reach targets in the blood and tissue fluid. Cytotoxic (CD8) T cells recognize infected host cells by the foreign peptides they display and kill them, eliminating the pathogen's hiding place. Antibodies, B cells, and complement act mainly against extracellular targets, which is why they are less effective here.\n\n**7.** Attenuated. Attenuated means weakened. A live attenuated vaccine uses a living microbe that has been altered so it can no longer cause disease (its virulence is reduced) but can still replicate enough to provoke a strong, lasting immune response (its immunogenicity is retained). A toxoid, by contrast, is an inactivated toxin, not a live microbe.\n\n**8.** Plasma cells. When a naive B cell meets its specific antigen and receives help from T cells, it differentiates into a plasma cell, the effector cell of the antibody response. Plasma cells are antibody factories, secreting thousands of antibody molecules per second. Memory cells, by contrast, persist quietly and respond faster on a future encounter but do not pour out antibody the way plasma cells do.\n\n**9.** The variable portion of the heavy and light chains. An antibody's specificity, its ability to recognize one particular target, comes from the antigen-binding site formed by the variable regions at the tips of both the heavy and light chains. Genetic recombination of these variable segments generates millions of different binding sites, which is how the immune system can recognize an enormous range of antigens. The Fc portion, by contrast, is constant and determines effector function, not specificity.\n\n**10.** Whole cell \u002F soluble molecule. The two reactions differ by the physical state of the antigen. Agglutination involves particulate antigens, whole cells such as bacteria or red blood cells, that clump into visible aggregates when antibody cross-links them. Precipitation involves soluble antigens that cross-link with antibody into a lattice large enough to fall out of solution. Particle equals agglutination; soluble equals precipitation.\n\n**11.** Antigen. A naive B cell is switched on when a specific antigen binds the membrane-bound immunoglobulin that serves as its B-cell receptor. That binding starts the intracellular signaling that leads to activation and, with T-cell help, differentiation into plasma cells and memory cells. The other options are molecules and cells involved elsewhere in immunity, but the initiating signal for the B cell is its antigen.\n\n**12.** Hybridoma. A hybridoma is made by fusing an antibody-producing plasma B cell with an immortal myeloma (tumor) cell. The fusion combines the plasma cell's antibody specificity with the tumor cell's ability to divide indefinitely, giving a cell line that produces one defined antibody forever. This is the basis of monoclonal antibody production.\n\n**13.** Epitope. A monoclonal antibody is derived from a single clone and recognizes a single epitope, the precise small region of an antigen (also called the antigenic determinant) that the antibody binds. A whole antigen usually carries several different epitopes; a monoclonal antibody sees only one of them, which is the source of its high specificity.\n\n**14.** T cells \u002F B cells. The adaptive immune response has two arms. Cell-mediated immunity is carried out mainly by T lymphocytes, which act on infected or abnormal cells directly. Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity is carried out by B lymphocytes, which differentiate into plasma cells and secrete antibodies into the body fluids (the humors). Matching each arm to its lymphocyte is the point of the question.\n\n**15.** Self-tolerance or immunological tolerance. Self-tolerance is the immune system's learned ability to leave the body's own molecules alone while still attacking foreign ones. It is established as developing lymphocytes that react too strongly against self-antigens are removed or silenced. When self-tolerance breaks down, the immune system attacks the body's own tissues, which is the basis of autoimmune disease.",[],[51],"immunology-mcqs",[53,60,68,75,82,90,97,105],{"slug":54,"title":55,"description":56,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":58,"tags":59},"mcq-immunology-antibodies","Immunology MCQs: Antibodies and Immunoglobulins (With Answers and Explanations)","\u003Cp>Twenty-four antibody MCQs with answers and explanations: immunoglobulin structure, the Fc region, the five classes (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE), J-chain, opsonization, complement fixation, and the antibody response.\u003C\u002Fp>","2012-04-10",[],[51],{"slug":61,"title":62,"description":63,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":64,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":65,"faq":66,"tags":67},"mcqs-in-immunology-complement-system-31-40","Immunology MCQs: The Complement System (With Answers and Explanations)","\u003Cp>Ten complement system MCQs with answers and explanations: classical and alternative pathways, C3 and C5 convertases, C3b opsonization, C5a chemotaxis, the membrane attack complex, and complement fixation.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-01-15","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fmcqs-immunology-complement-system-with-answers.png",[],[51],{"slug":69,"title":70,"description":71,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":72,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":73,"tags":74},"mcq-in-medical-microbiology-immunology-mcqs-11-20","Immunology MCQs: Monoclonal Antibodies, MHC, and Antigen Presentation (With Answers)","\u003Cp>Ten immunology MCQs with answers and explanations on monoclonal antibodies and hybridomas, opsonization, MHC class I, II, and III, antigen presentation, clonal selection, and HLA typing for transplant.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-01-14",[],[51],{"slug":76,"title":77,"description":78,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":79,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":80,"tags":81},"multiple-choice-questions-on-basic-immunology-concepts","Immunology MCQs: Innate Immunity and Immune Cells (With Answers)","\u003Cp>Fifteen immunology MCQs with answers and explanations on innate immunity: pattern recognition receptors, phagocytes and neutrophils, defensins, lysozyme, acute-phase proteins, interferons, and NK cells.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-01-29",[],[51],{"slug":83,"title":84,"description":85,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":86,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":87,"tags":88},"mcq-immunology-3","Immunology MCQs: Hypersensitivity, Autoimmunity, Transplantation, and Immunodeficiency (With Answers)","\u003Cp>MCQs with answers and explanations on the four types of hypersensitivity, autoimmune disease, blood transfusion, transplant and graft types, and immunodeficiency including HIV and AIDS.\u003C\u002Fp>","2010-04-18",[],[89,51],"hypersensitivity",{"slug":91,"title":92,"description":93,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":64,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":94,"faq":95,"tags":96},"mcq-medical-microbiology-immunology-21-30","Immunology MCQs: Immunoglobulin Classes and Structure (With Answers)","\u003Cp>Ten immunology MCQs with answers and explanations on the immunoglobulin classes: IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE, and IgD, complement fixation, the J-chain, secretory IgA, and how antibody class is determined.\u003C\u002Fp>","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fmcqs-medical-microbiology-immunology-21-30.png",[],[51],{"slug":98,"title":99,"description":100,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":101,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":102,"tags":103},"mcq-on-virology-hepatitis-and-related-viruses","Virology MCQs: Hepatitis Viruses (With Answers and Explanations)","\u003Cp>Ten hepatitis virology MCQs with answers and explanations: HBV and HCV structure, hepatitis D as a defective virus, HBIG, cell culture, and laboratory diagnosis (HBsAg, IgM anti-HAV, RIBA).\u003C\u002Fp>","2012-05-09",[],[104],"virology-mcqs",{"slug":106,"title":107,"description":108,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":109,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":110,"tags":111},"mcq-microbiology-virology-multiple-choice-questions","Virology MCQs: Clinical and Applied Virology (With Answers and Explanations)","\u003Cp>Ten clinical virology MCQs with answers and explanations: viral aseptic meningitis, influenza antivirals, hepatitis B vaccine and neonatal transmission, HIV testing, RSV, and herpes reactivation.\u003C\u002Fp>","2012-04-16",[],[104],{"enabled":113,"threads":114,"total":115},true,[],0,[117,123,130,137,143,148,154,159,165,168,175],{"slug":118,"name":43,"description":119,"image":120,"body":121,"postCount":122},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",491,{"slug":124,"name":125,"description":126,"image":127,"body":128,"postCount":129},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":131,"name":132,"description":133,"image":134,"body":135,"postCount":136},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":138,"name":139,"description":133,"image":140,"body":141,"postCount":142},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":144,"name":145,"description":133,"image":42,"body":146,"postCount":147},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":149,"name":150,"description":151,"image":42,"body":152,"postCount":153},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":155,"name":156,"description":157,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":158},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":160,"name":161,"description":133,"image":162,"body":163,"postCount":164},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":166,"name":167,"description":157,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":158},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":169,"name":170,"description":171,"image":172,"body":173,"postCount":174},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",55,{"slug":176,"name":177,"description":178,"image":179,"body":180,"postCount":158},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[182,189,195,200,205,210,214,218,222,227,231,236,240,245,250,255,259,263,268,273,277,281,285,289,293,297,301,305,310,314,318,321,325,330,334,338,342,346,350,354,358,362,365,369,373,377,381,385,390,394,398,402,406,410,414,418,422,426,430,434,438,442,446,450,454,458,462,466,469,473,476,479,482,485,488,491,494,497,500,503,506,509,512],{"slug":183,"name":184,"description":185,"image":186,"body":187,"postCount":188},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":190,"name":191,"description":192,"image":42,"body":193,"postCount":194},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":196,"name":197,"description":198,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":199},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":201,"name":202,"description":203,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":206,"name":207,"description":208,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":211,"name":212,"description":213,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":215,"name":216,"description":217,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":219,"name":220,"description":221,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":223,"name":224,"description":225,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":228,"name":229,"description":230,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":232,"name":233,"description":234,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":235},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",22,{"slug":237,"name":238,"description":239,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":241,"name":242,"description":243,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":244},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":246,"name":247,"description":248,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":249},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":251,"name":252,"description":253,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",21,{"slug":256,"name":257,"description":42,"image":42,"body":258,"postCount":147},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":42,"image":42,"body":262,"postCount":244},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":264,"name":265,"description":266,"image":42,"body":267,"postCount":226},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":269,"name":270,"description":271,"image":42,"body":272,"postCount":147},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":274,"name":275,"description":276,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":147},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":278,"name":279,"description":280,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":147},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":284,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":147},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":286,"name":287,"description":288,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",{"slug":290,"name":291,"description":292,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":147},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":302,"name":303,"description":304,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":308,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":104,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":317,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":51,"name":319,"description":320,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":322,"name":323,"description":324,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":244},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":326,"name":327,"description":328,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":331,"name":332,"description":333,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":147},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":335,"name":336,"description":337,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":339,"name":340,"description":341,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":244},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":347,"name":348,"description":349,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":359,"name":360,"description":361,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":153},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":89,"name":363,"description":364,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":366,"name":367,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":370,"name":371,"description":372,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":374,"name":375,"description":376,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":194},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":378,"name":379,"description":380,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":382,"name":383,"description":384,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":389,"postCount":147},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":153},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":397,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":153},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":399,"name":400,"description":401,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":158},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":244},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":411,"name":412,"description":413,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":199},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":423,"name":424,"description":425,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":427,"name":428,"description":429,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":431,"name":432,"description":433,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":435,"name":436,"description":437,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":439,"name":440,"description":441,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":443,"name":444,"description":445,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":147},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":463,"name":464,"description":465,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":467,"name":468,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":158},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":470,"name":471,"description":472,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":474,"name":475,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":480,"name":481,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":483,"name":484,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":486,"name":487,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":504,"name":505,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":510,"name":511,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":368},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]