[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fFOpT9n5AWvVG-1SELfWn7cPCs2bbn6wVqV8UsOOXRXw":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":217,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":280},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":50,"related":52,"comments":213},"mcintosh-fildes-anaerobic-jar-principle-procedure-uses","McIntosh and Fildes' Anaerobic Jar: Principle, Procedure, and Uses","\u003Cp>McIntosh and Fildes' anaerobic jar achieves anaerobiosis by evacuating air and replacing it with H₂\u002FCO₂\u002FN₂. Residual oxygen is removed by palladium catalyst. Learn the step-by-step procedure, how to verify anaerobiosis, and how it compares to the GasPak system.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2016-08-19","2026-08-06",false,"bacteriology","A reference laboratory receives a pus specimen from a patient with a liver abscess. Direct Gram stain shows gram-negative rods. After 48 hours, aerobic blood agar shows no growth. The anaerobic jar cultures, however, grow *Bacteroides fragilis*, an obligate anaerobe killed within minutes by atmospheric oxygen. Without the sealed anaerobic environment of the jar, the causative organism would never have been isolated and appropriate metronidazole therapy would not have been guided by culture results.\n\nAnaerobic jars are the workhorses of anaerobic bacteriology in most clinical laboratories. Understanding the McIntosh-Fildes jar (the original and most mechanistically transparent design) provides the conceptual foundation for understanding all subsequent anaerobic systems.\n\nMcIntosh and Fildes' anaerobic jar is one of the classical methods for generating anaerobic conditions in a clinical or research microbiology laboratory. First described by McIntosh and Fildes in 1921, it achieves complete anaerobiosis through a two-stage process: evacuation of atmospheric air followed by replacement with a mixture of hydrogen, CO₂, and nitrogen, with residual oxygen removed catalytically.\n\nThe method remains in active use in many laboratories, particularly in settings where gas cylinder supply is reliable, where large numbers of plates must be processed simultaneously, or where the reusable jar system is more cost-effective per run than commercial single-use sachets. Where neither gas supply nor vacuum pump is available, the GasPak system offers a more convenient alternative.\n\n## About the equipment\n\n![McIntosh and Fildes' Jar - McIntosh and Fildes’ Jar](\u002Fblogs\u002FMcIntosh-Fildes-Anaerobic-Jar.jpg)Figure: McIntosh and Fildes’ Jar\n\nMcIntosh and Fildes’ jar consists of a 8*5 inch (20*12.5 cm) jar of stout glass or metal with a tight-fitting metal lid. The lid can be clamped airtight with a screw and is fitted with **two tubes with taps, one for the introduction of the gas inside (inlet)** and the other as an **outlet** **for the vacuum valve.** The lid also contains **two terminals** that can be connected to an **electric supply**. A capsule containing alumina pellets coated with palladium (palladinised alumina) is suspended under the lid by stout wires which are connected with the terminals to heat the catalyst for its activity. Nowadays, catalysts that are active at room temperature are also available.\n\n## Principle\n\nMcIntosh and Fildes’ anaerobic jar works on the principle of evacuation and replacement, where the air inside the chamber is evacuated and replaced with mixture of gases (consisting of 5% CO2, 10% H2, and 85% N2).It is practically impossible to evacuate all the air so some amount of oxygen will still be left behind. The residual oxygen left behind is converted to water using spongy palladium or platinum catalyst. The catalyst acts as a catalyzing agent causing slow combination of hydrogen and oxygen to form water. Reduced methylene blue is generally used as an indicator (mixture of NaOH, methylene blue, and glucose). **It becomes colorless anaerobically but regains blue color on exposure to oxygen.**\n\n## Procedure\n\n1. Keep the inoculated culture plates inside the jar along with an indicator.\n2. Screw tight the lid\n3. Close the inlet tube and connect outlet tube to a vacuum pump (at least three quarters of the air of the jar can be removed).\n4. Note the pressure on a vacuum gauze and when the pressure is reduced to 100 mm Hg (i.e., 600 mm below atmospheric), tightly close the outlet tap.\\\n   \\\n   **Understanding the vacuum gauge reading:** Atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg. When the gauge reads 100 mmHg, the absolute pressure inside the jar has been reduced to 100 mmHg; meaning approximately 87% of the air has been removed (600 mmHg reduction from 760 mmHg). The instruction \"reduce to 100 mmHg (600 mm below atmospheric)\" means the gauge reading is 100 mmHg absolute, not that 100 mmHg has been removed. This distinction matters when reading the gauge, aim for a gauge reading of 100 mmHg, not a reduction of 100 mmHg.\n5. Connect the inlet tap is to a hydrogen supply and then open it. Hydrogen is passed through a small wash bottle.\n6. Bring the reduced pressure up to 760 mm Hg (i.e., atmospheric) by monitoring the vacuum gauze as 0.\n7. Switch on the electric terminals for heating the palladinised crystal *(When room temperature catalyst is used heating is not required).* The catalyst helps the combination of hydrogen and residual oxygen to form water. This process is allowed to continue for 20 minutes.\n8. Incubate the McIntosh and Fildes’ jar in an incubator at 37°C for 48 hours.\n\n## Monitoring efficacy of anaerobiosis\n\nReduced methylene blue indicator is used to check the efficacy of anaerobiosis. A tube containing reduced methylene blue solution had to kept inside the jar along with the culture plates. Methylene blue is colorless in reduced conditions and turns blue when oxidized.\n\n## Advantages and Disadvantages\n\n| Advantages | Disadvantages |\n| --- | --- |\n| Reusable jar, lower cost per run over time | Requires vacuum pump (expensive, requires maintenance) |\n| Large capacity, accommodates many plates simultaneously | Requires hydrogen gas cylinder. Safety risk; supply dependency |\n| Mechanistically reliable, evacuation ensures thorough O₂ removal | More complex procedure than GasPak: more steps, more failure points |\n| Catalyst can be reactivated by heating (160°C, 2h) | Electric supply required for heated catalyst (unless room-temperature catalyst used) |\n| Original validated method, well-documented performance | Bulky equipment, not portable |\n| Suitable for strict anaerobes requiring thorough anaerobiosis | Hydrogen leak risk if fittings deteriorate |\n\n## McIntosh-Fildes vs GasPak: Which to Choose?\n\n| Feature | McIntosh-Fildes Jar | GasPak System |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Principle | Evacuation + gas replacement + catalysis | Chemical sachet generates H₂ + CO₂; catalysis removes residual O₂ |\n| Equipment required | Jar + vacuum pump + H₂ cylinder + electric supply | Jar + commercial sachet only |\n| Anaerobiosis quality | Excellent, thorough evacuation | Excellent, equivalent results |\n| Cost per run | Low (reusable; only gas cost) | Moderate (sachet per use) |\n| Setup complexity | More complex (multiple steps) | Simple (add sachet, seal, incubate) |\n| Portability | No | Yes. No gas or electrical supply needed |\n| Capacity | Large (multiple plates) | Standard jar capacity |\n| Catalyst reactivation | Yes. Heat at 160°C for 2h | Replace sachet, not reusable |\n| Best for | High-volume labs with gas\u002Fpump infrastructure | Routine labs; resource-limited settings without gas supply |\n\nFor the full GasPak procedure and sachet mechanism, see: [GasPak Anaerobic System](\u002Fgaspak-anaerobic-system\u002F)\n\n## Troubleshooting\n\n| Problem | Likely Cause | Action |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Methylene blue indicator remains blue after incubation | Insufficient vacuum; gas leak; catalyst failure | Check jar seal and tap tightness; verify vacuum gauge reading; regenerate catalyst (heat at 160°C for 2h); check H₂ supply |\n| Anaerobic organisms fail to grow despite blue indicator turning colorless | Plates exposed to air during inoculation; too long between inoculation and jar sealing | Inoculate and seal jar within 15–20 minutes; pre-reduce plates before use for strict anaerobes |\n| Vacuum cannot be achieved | Tap or seal failure; cracked jar | Check all taps and O-rings; inspect jar for cracks; replace faulty components |\n| Condensation flooding jar | Hydrogen gas not dried through wash bottle | Ensure H₂ passes through wash bottle with water before entering jar |\n| Catalyst inactive (no heat generation) | Catalyst poisoned by H₂S or volatile substances | Replace palladinised alumina; do not use with H₂S-producing cultures if possible |\n| Explosive risk | H₂ leak | Never use open flame near jar during H₂ filling; check all connections before gas introduction |\n\n**Safety note:** Hydrogen gas is flammable and explosive at concentrations of 4–75% in air. All connections must be checked before introducing H₂. No open flames in the vicinity.\n\n## How to Remember: McIntosh-Fildes Jar\n\n**\"Evacuate, Replace, Catalyze\" — three steps in sequence:**\n\n1. **Evacuate**: vacuum pump removes \\~87% of air (gauge reads 100 mmHg)\n2. **Replace**: hydrogen + CO₂ + N₂ mixture fills the evacuated space\n3. **Catalyze**: palladium catalyst combines residual H₂ + O₂ → water\n\n**The indicator rule is same as all anaerobic systems:** Methylene blue **colorless** = reduced = anaerobic conditions achieved ✓ Methylene blue **blue** = oxidized = O₂ still present (do not proceed)\n\n**The catalyst memory:** Palladium is the catalyst. It can be **poisoned** (by H₂S, volatile substances) and must be **regenerated by heating at 160°C for 2 hours**. A poisoned catalyst is the most common reason for failed anaerobiosis despite correct procedure.\n\n## Key Exam Facts in One Table\n\n| Feature | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Named after | James McIntosh and Paul Fildes (1921) |\n| Principle | Evacuation and replacement — air evacuated; replaced with H₂ + CO₂ + N₂; residual O₂ removed by catalyst |\n| Gas mixture used | 10% H₂ + 5% CO₂ + 85% N₂ |\n| Vacuum target | 100 mmHg absolute (600 mmHg below atmospheric), removes \\~87% of air |\n| Catalyst | Palladinised alumina (palladium-coated aluminium oxide), heated or room temperature type |\n| Catalyst reaction | H₂ + O₂ → H₂O (water) |\n| Catalyst regeneration | Heat at 160°C for 2 hours if poisoned |\n| Indicator | Reduced methylene blue — colorless = anaerobic; blue = O₂ present |\n| Incubation | 37°C for 48 hours (or longer for slow-growing anaerobes) |\n| Advantage over GasPak | Reusable; higher capacity; lower cost per run in high-volume labs |\n| Disadvantage vs GasPak | Requires vacuum pump + H₂ cylinder + electric supply  |\n| Safety concern | H₂ is flammable (4–75% explosive range), no open flames; check connections |\n\n**References**\n\n1. Fildes, P., & McIntosh, J. (1921). An Improved Form of McIntosh and Fildes’ Anaërobic Jar. *British journal of experimental pathology*, *2*(3), 153–154.\n2. Saha, U. S., Misra, R., Tiwari, D., & Prasad, K. N. (2016). A cost-effective anaerobic culture method & its comparison with a standard method. *The Indian journal of medical research*, *144*(4), 611–613. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.4103\u002F0971-5916.200881>\n3. Forbes BA, Sahm DF, Weissfeld AS. Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology. 14th ed. Elsevier; 2023.\n4. Murray PR, Rosenthal KS, Pfaller MA. Medical Microbiology. 9th ed. Elsevier; 2020.\n5. Garcia LS. Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook. 4th ed. ASM Press; 2016.",[],[51],"anaerobic-culture-techniques",[53,80,114,123,131,140,172,186],{"slug":54,"title":55,"description":56,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":58,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":59,"tags":78},"gaspak-anaerobic-system","GasPak Anaerobic System: Principle, How to Read the Indicator, and Troubleshooting","How the GasPak system creates anaerobiosis, how to read the methylene blue indicator correctly, and how to troubleshoot a jar that failed to go anaerobic. Bench-tested interpretation, not just the reaction.","2020-03-28","2026-07-25",[60,63,66,69,72,75],{"question":61,"answer":62},"Why is my methylene blue strip still blue after incubation?","The jar did not achieve anaerobiosis. Check the gasket seal first, then the catalyst (if a classic system), sachet activation, and whether you overloaded the jar or sealed it too slowly. The run is invalid; repeat it. A blue strip on opening is reliable evidence of failure, unless it went colorless in the jar and re-blued after exposure to bench air.",{"question":64,"answer":65},"Does a colorless indicator strip mean my anaerobe grew?","No. The strip only confirms the atmosphere went anaerobic. Whether your organism grew is a separate question answered by looking at the plate. A colorless strip with a bare plate means anaerobiosis worked but the organism did not grow.",{"question":67,"answer":68},"Do modern GasPak systems still need water and a catalyst?","Classic water-activated systems do. The BD GasPak EZ is waterless and catalyst-free by design. Always follow the specific product's manual, because activation steps differ between systems.",{"question":70,"answer":71},"Why use a Pseudomonas plate with anaerobic cultures?","Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an obligate aerobe, so it cannot grow without oxygen. Running it inside the jar gives a biological confirmation of anaerobiosis: if it fails to grow, the atmosphere was genuinely anaerobic. It is more trustworthy than the chemical strip because it tests the actual biological effect of the atmosphere.",{"question":73,"answer":74},"How do I regenerate a poisoned palladium catalyst?","Heat the catalyst pellets in a hot air oven at about 160°C for two hours, then cool them in a desiccator before reuse. Many labs do this after every run, since hydrogen sulfide and other anaerobic metabolic gases progressively poison the palladium.",{"question":76,"answer":77},"GasPak or McIntosh-Fildes, which should I use?","GasPak generates gas chemically inside a sealed jar and suits low-throughput labs; it is simple and needs no vacuum line. The McIntosh and Fildes' jar evacuates air and replaces it with a gas mixture, which suits higher volume but needs a vacuum source. See Cultivation of Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria for the full comparison.",[79,51],"anaerobic-bacteriology",{"slug":81,"title":82,"description":83,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":84,"lastUpdatedDate":85,"draft":46,"category":86,"image":42,"faq":87,"tags":112},"commonly-used-anaerobic-media-for-anaerobic-bacteriology","Commonly Used Anaerobic Culture Media in the Diagnostic Bacteriology Laboratory","\u003Cp>A complete guide to anaerobic culture media: non-selective, selective, and differential media used in clinical anaerobic bacteriology, including primary plating battery, PRAS media, and key organisms recovered.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-05-24","2026-08-21","culture-media",[88,91,94,97,100,103,106,109],{"question":89,"answer":90},"What is the difference between selective and non-selective anaerobic media?","\u003Cp>Non-selective (blood agar, RCM, thioglycollate): support all anaerobes for broad recovery. Selective: use antibiotics to target specific organisms. BBE for \u003Cem>B. fragilis\u003C\u002Fem>, LKV for \u003Cem>Prevotella\u002FBacteroide\u003C\u002Fem>s, CCFA for\u003Cem> C. difficile\u003C\u002Fem>, PEA for gram-positive anaerobes.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":92,"answer":93},"Why does Robertson's Cooked Meat Medium support anaerobic growth without a reducing agent?","\u003Cp>Sulfhydryl groups in muscle proteins chemically reduce oxygen, lowering Eh naturally. Meat particles physically absorb dissolved oxygen. Supports \u003Cem>C. tetani\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>C. botulinum\u003C\u002Fem> without added chemical reducing agents.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":95,"answer":96},"What is PRAS media?","\u003Cp>Pre-Reduced Anaerobically Sterilized. Manufactured under anaerobic conditions, 6-month shelf life. Superior recovery of fastidious anaerobes vs laboratory-prepared plates (use within 2 weeks).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":98,"answer":99},"What does resazurin color indicate in thioglycollate broth?","\u003Cp>Colorless = sufficiently anaerobic. Pink = oxygen has penetrated. If more than one-third of tube is pink, the broth is compromised, boil briefly to drive off oxygen, or discard.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":101,"answer":102},"Why is laked blood used in LKV agar?","\u003Cp>Hemolyzed blood releases hemin and growth factors that enhance and accelerate brown-black pigment in \u003Cem>Prevotella\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Porphyromonas\u003C\u002Fem>, allowing identification at 48-72 hours rather than 5-7 days.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":104,"answer":105},"What is the minimum anaerobic primary plating battery?","\u003Cp>Anaerobic blood agar (non-selective) + BBE or LKV (\u003Cem>Bacteroides\u002FPrevotella\u003C\u002Fem>) + PEA (gram-positive anaerobes) + enrichment broth. Add CCFA for suspected \u003Cem>C. difficile\u003C\u002Fem>. Incubate anaerobically at 35-37°C; examine at 48 and 72 hours.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":107,"answer":108},"\u003Cp>How does CCFA select for \u003Cem>Clostridioides difficile?\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Cycloserine inhibits most gram-positives; cefoxitin inhibits gram-negatives. \u003Cem>C. difficile: \u003C\u002Fem>yellow ground-glass colonies with horse-barn odor and yellow-green UV fluorescence. Always combine with toxin immunoassay or PCR.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":110,"answer":111},"Why is Bacteroides fragilis the most clinically important anaerobe?","Most frequently isolated from intra-abdominal infections. Has polysaccharide capsule, fragilysin toxin, intrinsic penicillin resistance, and better oxygen tolerance than other obligate anaerobes.",[79,51,113],"bacterial-culture-media",{"slug":115,"title":116,"description":117,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":118,"lastUpdatedDate":119,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":120,"tags":121},"cultivation-of-aerobic-and-anaerobic-bacteria","Cultivation of Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria: Methods, Principles, and Equipment","\u003Cp>A complete guide to cultivating aerobic and anaerobic bacteria: oxygen requirements, pre-reduced media, anaerobic jars (GasPak, McIntosh-Fildes), candle jar, anaerobic chambers, and indicators. With links to detailed equipment and media articles.\u003C\u002Fp>","2010-07-30","2026-08-16",[],[79,51,122],"bacterial-classification",{"slug":124,"title":125,"description":126,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":127,"lastUpdatedDate":128,"draft":46,"category":86,"image":42,"faq":129,"tags":130},"robertsons-cooked-meat-medium-principle-composition-procedure-and-uses","Robertson's Cooked Meat (RCM) Medium: Principle, Composition, Uses, and Interpretation","\u003Cp>Robertson's cooked meat medium cultivates and enriches anaerobes, especially \u003Cem>Clostridium\u003C\u002Fem> species, using meat particles as natural reducing agents. Learn the principle, preparation, how to interpret saccharolytic vs proteolytic reactions, and how it compares to thioglycollate broth.\u003C\u002Fp>","2016-11-29","2026-08-23",[],[79,51],{"slug":132,"title":133,"description":134,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":135,"createdDate":136,"lastUpdatedDate":137,"draft":46,"category":86,"image":42,"faq":138,"tags":139},"thioglycollate-broth","Thioglycollate Broth: Composition, Principle, Uses, and Reading Results","Thioglycollate broth supports aerobic, anaerobic, and fastidious organisms and reveals their oxygen requirements by where they grow in the tube. Learn the composition, principle, blood culture application, and how to read results including the resazurin pink band.","Nisha Rijal","2016-10-06","2026-08-17",[],[51],{"slug":141,"title":142,"description":143,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":144,"lastUpdatedDate":145,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":146,"tags":171},"anaerobic-infections-etiology-characteristics-and-diagnosis","Anaerobic Infections: Causes, Where Anaerobes Live, Symptoms, Diagnosis","\u003Cp>Anaerobic infections explained: what they are, where anaerobic bacteria live in the body, clinical clues, the organisms that cause them, and how the lab diagnoses them.\u003C\u002Fp>","2020-02-29","2026-08-26",[147,150,153,156,159,162,165,168],{"question":148,"answer":149},"\u003Cp>What is an anaerobic infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is an infection caused by anaerobic bacteria, which grow without oxygen and are often harmed by it. These infections range from a small abscess to life-threatening gas gangrene. Most come from the person's own normal flora reaching a normally sterile site.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":151,"answer":152},"\u003Cp>Where are anaerobic bacteria found in the human body?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly in low-oxygen sites: the mouth and gums, the large intestine, the skin, and the female genital tract. The colon holds the densest anaerobic population. Infections usually occur when these resident anaerobes escape into nearby tissue after a barrier is broken.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":154,"answer":155},"\u003Cp>What are examples of anaerobic infections?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Dental and gum abscesses, aspiration and lung abscesses, intra-abdominal abscesses after bowel perforation, brain abscesses, gas gangrene, tetanus, botulism, and \u003Cem>Clostridioides difficile\u003C\u002Fem> colitis. Many are polymicrobial.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":157,"answer":158},"\u003Cp>What are the signs of an anaerobic infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Classic clues are a foul or putrid smell, gas in the tissues, abscess formation, dead (necrotic) tissue, infection near a mucosal surface, and bacteria seen on Gram stain that fail to grow on ordinary aerobic culture.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":160,"answer":161},"\u003Cp>Why is oxygen toxic to anaerobic bacteria?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Obligate anaerobes lack the protective enzymes catalase, superoxide dismutase, and peroxidase. Without these, the toxic byproducts of oxygen (superoxide and hydrogen peroxide) build up and damage the cell, so the bacteria are harmed or killed in air.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":163,"answer":164},"\u003Cp>How are anaerobic infections diagnosed?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By collecting a good specimen (an aspirate or tissue from a sterile site, protected from air and transported quickly), examining a Gram stain, and culturing it in an oxygen-free system such as a GasPak jar. A Gram stain showing bacteria with no aerobic growth strongly suggests anaerobes.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":166,"answer":167},"\u003Cp>Why must anaerobic specimens be collected and transported carefully?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Anaerobes start to die when exposed to air, so delays or oxygen exposure can kill them before culture. Swabs and specimens from mucosal surfaces (which carry normal-flora anaerobes) give poor or misleading results. Aspirates and tissue from sterile sites, transported fast, are best.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":169,"answer":170},"\u003Cp>How are anaerobic infections treated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>With antibiotics chosen for anaerobes (metronidazole, beta-lactam\u002Fbeta-lactamase-inhibitor combinations, carbapenems, or clindamycin) and, just as importantly, with surgery to drain abscesses and remove dead tissue. Removing the low-oxygen dead tissue is often essential for cure.\u003C\u002Fp>",[79],{"slug":173,"title":174,"description":175,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":176,"lastUpdatedDate":85,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":177,"tags":184},"gram-positive-cocci-of-medical-importance","Gram Positive Cocci of Medical Importance","\u003Cp>Gram positive cocci by arrangement, clusters, chains, pairs, and tetrads, covering \u003Cem>Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Micrococcus\u003C\u002Fem> with key identification tests\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-09-09",[178,181],{"question":179,"answer":180},"What are the main genera of gram-positive cocci of medical importance?","\u003Cp>The most clinically significant genera are \u003Cem>Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Enterococcus\u003C\u002Fem>. \u003Cem>Micrococcus, Peptococcus,\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Peptostreptococcus\u003C\u002Fem> are also gram-positive cocci but are rare pathogens, mostly normal flora.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":182,"answer":183},"How does cell arrangement (clusters, chains, pairs, tetrads) help identify gram-positive cocci?","\u003Cp>Arrangement under the microscope narrows identification before any biochemical test is run: clusters suggest \u003Cem>Staphylococcus\u003C\u002Fem>, chains suggest \u003Cem>Streptococcus\u003C\u002Fem>, pairs (diplococci) suggest \u003Cem>S. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> or \u003Cem>Enterococcus\u003C\u002Fem>, and tetrads suggest \u003Cem>Micrococcus.\u003C\u002Fem> This is typically followed by the catalase test to confirm the genus-level call.\u003C\u002Fp>",[122,185],"gram-positive-cocci",{"slug":187,"title":188,"description":189,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":190,"createdDate":191,"lastUpdatedDate":119,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":192,"tags":211},"sxt-testing-principle-procedure-and-results","SXT Testing: Principle, Procedure, and Results","\u003Cp>SXT (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) susceptibility helps presumptively group beta-hemolytic streptococci. Learn the principle, procedure, and how to read SXT with bacitracin to separate group A, group B, and other streptococci.\u003C\u002Fp>","Ashma Shrestha","2022-08-27",[193,196,199,202,205,208],{"question":194,"answer":195},"\u003Cp>What does SXT stand for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>SXT is the disk containing trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole, two antibiotics used together (co-trimoxazole). The disk holds 1.25 µg of trimethoprim and 23.75 µg of sulfamethoxazole.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":197,"answer":198},"\u003Cp>What does a clear zone around the SXT disk mean?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It means the organism is susceptible to SXT. Groups C, F, and G beta-hemolytic streptococci are susceptible and show a clear zone. Growth up to the edge of the disk means the organism is resistant, as seen with groups A and B.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":200,"answer":201},"\u003Cp>Why are both group A and group B resistant to SXT?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both groups are naturally resistant, so SXT alone cannot tell them apart. SXT separates group A and group B together from the other beta-hemolytic groups, and bacitracin is then used to distinguish group A from group B.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":203,"answer":204},"\u003Cp>How do SXT and bacitracin work together?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Group A is bacitracin-susceptible and SXT-resistant. Group B is bacitracin-resistant and SXT-resistant. Groups C, F, and G are usually bacitracin-resistant and SXT-susceptible. Reading the two zones together gives a presumptive group.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":206,"answer":207},"\u003Cp>Is the SXT test enough to identify the organism?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. It is presumptive. Group B is confirmed with the CAMP test and hippurate hydrolysis, and definitive identification uses Lancefield grouping or biochemical, molecular, or mass spectrometry methods.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":209,"answer":210},"\u003Cp>Why is SXT added to the blood agar in some methods?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Adding SXT to the agar suppresses the normal throat flora, which makes it easier to recover group A and group B streptococci from a throat swab.\u003C\u002Fp>",[212],"susceptibility-based-id",{"enabled":214,"threads":215,"total":216},true,[],0,[218,224,230,237,243,248,254,259,265,268,274],{"slug":219,"name":43,"description":220,"image":221,"body":222,"postCount":223},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",491,{"slug":225,"name":190,"description":226,"image":227,"body":228,"postCount":229},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":231,"name":232,"description":233,"image":234,"body":235,"postCount":236},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":238,"name":239,"description":233,"image":240,"body":241,"postCount":242},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":244,"name":245,"description":233,"image":42,"body":246,"postCount":247},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":249,"name":250,"description":251,"image":42,"body":252,"postCount":253},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":255,"name":256,"description":257,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":258},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":233,"image":262,"body":263,"postCount":264},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":266,"name":267,"description":257,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":258},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":269,"name":135,"description":270,"image":271,"body":272,"postCount":273},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",55,{"slug":275,"name":276,"description":277,"image":278,"body":279,"postCount":258},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[281,288,294,298,303,308,312,315,319,324,328,333,337,342,347,352,356,360,365,370,374,378,381,385,389,393,397,401,406,411,415,419,423,427,431,435,439,443,447,450,454,458,462,466,470,474,478,482,487,491,495,499,503,507,511,515,518,522,526,530,534,538,542,546,550,554,558,562,565,569,572,575,578,581,584,587,590,593,596,599,602,605,608],{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":284,"image":285,"body":286,"postCount":287},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":289,"name":290,"description":291,"image":42,"body":292,"postCount":293},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":185,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":299,"name":300,"description":301,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":304,"name":305,"description":306,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":307},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":309,"name":310,"description":311,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":79,"name":313,"description":314,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":327,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":329,"name":330,"description":331,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",22,{"slug":334,"name":335,"description":336,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":346},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",21,{"slug":353,"name":354,"description":42,"image":42,"body":355,"postCount":247},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":357,"name":358,"description":42,"image":42,"body":359,"postCount":341},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":361,"name":362,"description":363,"image":42,"body":364,"postCount":323},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":366,"name":367,"description":368,"image":42,"body":369,"postCount":247},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":375,"name":376,"description":377,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":51,"name":379,"description":380,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":382,"name":383,"description":384,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":390,"name":391,"description":392,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":394,"name":395,"description":396,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":398,"name":399,"description":400,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":402,"name":403,"description":404,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":113,"name":424,"description":425,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":122,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":253},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":463,"name":464,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":467,"name":468,"description":469,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":471,"name":472,"description":473,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":475,"name":476,"description":477,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":479,"name":480,"description":481,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":483,"name":484,"description":485,"image":42,"body":486,"postCount":247},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":488,"name":489,"description":490,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":253},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":494,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":253},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":496,"name":497,"description":498,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":307},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":500,"name":501,"description":502,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":258},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":504,"name":505,"description":506,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":508,"name":509,"description":510,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":512,"name":513,"description":514,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":212,"name":516,"description":517,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":519,"name":520,"description":521,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":523,"name":524,"description":525,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":307},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":527,"name":528,"description":529,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":531,"name":532,"description":533,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":535,"name":536,"description":537,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":539,"name":540,"description":541,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":543,"name":544,"description":545,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":547,"name":548,"description":549,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":307},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":551,"name":552,"description":553,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":555,"name":556,"description":557,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":559,"name":560,"description":561,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":563,"name":564,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":258},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":566,"name":567,"description":568,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":570,"name":571,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":573,"name":574,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":579,"name":580,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":582,"name":583,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":585,"name":586,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":594,"name":595,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":597,"name":598,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":600,"name":601,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":603,"name":604,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":606,"name":607,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":609,"name":610,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":410},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]