[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fcZIYVbO_yMai2oJzAGBWqZ9SKYJKQ9ib__Asb4ysk_Y":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":99,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":164},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":68,"related":69,"comments":95},"laboratory-information-system-lis","Laboratory Information System (LIS): Components, Workflow, and Functions","\u003Cp>A laboratory information system (LIS) manages patient samples and results from order to report. Learn its components, the pre- to post-analytical workflow, key functions, benefits, and how LIS differs from LIMS.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Ashma Shrestha","2022-06-27","2026-08-27",false,"bacteriology","Follow a single blood sample through a busy diagnostic lab. It is ordered by a doctor, drawn on the ward, labeled with a barcode, logged in at reception, routed to the right bench, run on an analyzer, checked, released, and finally stored, all while its status is visible to anyone who needs it. The invisible thread tying every one of those steps together is the laboratory information system. Without it, a modern lab running thousands of samples a day would grind to a halt. This article walks through what an LIS is, the parts it is built from, and how a specimen moves through it from order to report.\n\nA laboratory information system (LIS) is software that manages the flow of patient samples and their results through a clinical laboratory, from the moment a test is ordered to the moment the report reaches the doctor. It records patient and sample details, tracks each specimen through testing, captures and verifies results, sends those results to the hospital record, and stores the data for future reference.\n\nIn simple terms, the LIS is the lab's central nervous system. Every specimen that enters the lab is registered in it, every result flows through it, and every report leaves through it. In a lab processing thousands of tests a day, the LIS is what makes it possible to know, at any moment, where a sample is and what has been done to it.\n\nLIS is closely related to, and often confused with, LIMS (laboratory information management system). The two overlap and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they have different origins and emphases, which the next section explains.\n\n![Overall workflow of LIS - Image source:https:\u002F\u002Fwww.scirp.org\u002Fjournal\u002Fpaperinformation.aspx?paperid=49352](\u002Fblogs\u002FLaboratory-information-management-system-processes-and-procedures-4-Adapted-from-Zhu.png)Figure: Overview of laboratory information system workflow\n\n## **LIS vs LIMS: what is the difference?**\n\nLIS and LIMS sound almost identical and are often used interchangeably, but they come from two different worlds.\n\n| Feature | LIS (Laboratory Information System) | LIMS (Laboratory Information Management System) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Built for | Clinical \u002F diagnostic labs | Research, industrial, QC, and environmental labs |\n| Organized around | The **patient** (results tied to a patient record) | The **sample \u002F batch** (tracking samples through a process) |\n| Typical setting | Hospital and diagnostic laboratories | Pharma, food, water, forensic, and R&D labs |\n| Key external link | The hospital record (EHR\u002FHIS), usually via HL7 | Instruments, batches, and study\u002Fproject data |\n| Core question it answers | \"What are this patient's results?\" | \"Where is this sample and what has been done to it?\" |\n| Regulatory frame | Clinical accreditation (e.g. CAP, ISO 15189) | GLP\u002FGMP, ISO 17025 |\n\nThe short version: a **LIS is patient-centric** and lives in the diagnostic lab that serves a hospital; a **LIMS is sample-centric** and lives in research, quality-control, and industrial labs. Modern products increasingly blur the line (some clinical systems are marketed as \"clinical LIMS\"), which is why the terms are muddled in everyday use. For a hospital microbiology or pathology lab, the system in use is almost always described as an LIS.\n\n## Components of LIS\n\nThe proper functioning of the LIS requires three different components working in a synchronized form. They are:\n\n### Tracking Sample\n\nThis is the core component, because the specimen is the most valuable item in any clinical laboratory. When a sample arrives, the LIS records its details: a unique accession ID, the patient's name and identifiers, the ward or department, the specimen type, the date and time of collection, and the volume received.\n\nThis step of registering a new specimen and assigning it a unique ID is called accessioning, and it is where a physical sample becomes a trackable electronic record. A barcode carrying that ID is printed and attached to the tube, so the sample can be scanned and located at any bench as it moves through the lab. Because one specimen may be tested in several sections, this electronic tracking is what lets the lab know exactly where a sample is and pull every result from it into a single report.\n\n### Protocol and workflow control\n\nAnother component of LIS is implementing the protocols, steps, processes, and procedures to improve the standard of the laboratory workflow. Similarly, by digitizing all the steps, the system helps generate standard operating procedures (SOP) for processing samples and accurate result interpretation. The SOP helps maintain consistency in sample processing despite different laboratory personnel conducting the tests. Likewise, LIS helps provide a strict protocol for maintaining quality tests and gives visibility based on authorization. LIS also helps generate concise results, send them to the approval queue, and then distribute them as per the requirement.\n\n### Managing Storage\n\nFinally, the last component of the LIS is managing sample storage. The samples with the same batch number or date of collection are grouped, which helps in correctly storing the sample for future use. The batch is placed in the same container, box, or shelf rack. Along with the shelf rack, the system tracks the [freezer](\u002Flaboratory-freezers-temperature-range-and-inventory-management\u002F) or area where the rack is placed. The storage hierarchy is essential for locating samples quickly in a busy laboratory and keeping the operation organized and efficient.\n\n## The overall workflow of LIS\n\nThe precise working of LIS has a specific workflow. The overall workflow of LIS is as follows:\n\n### Pre-analytical\n\nThe pre-analytical workflow of LIS includes:\n\n- **Order entry:** the requested tests are entered into the LIS when the doctor orders them, creating the electronic record the sample will be matched to.\n- **Accessioning and barcoding:** when the specimen arrives, it is registered in the LIS and given a unique accession ID. A barcode label carrying that ID and the collection details is printed and attached to the tube, so the sample can be scanned and tracked at any bench from this point on.\n- **Chemical and reagent inventory:** It includes checking if the amount of chemicals and reagents required for performing tests are enough in the stock. It also includes confirming the chemicals’ expiry date before using or storing newly purchased chemicals.\n\n### Analytical\n\nThe analytical workflow of LIS includes:\n\n**Worklist assignment:** the accessioned sample is assigned to the correct test worklist and bench. (In forensic or medico-legal testing, this is also where a documented chain of custody is maintained, an unbroken record of who handled the sample and when, so the result can stand up in a legal setting.)\n\n**Test ordering and instrument interfacing**: the LIS sends the test order to the analyzer, telling it which tests to run on which sample, and the analyzer runs the test. Modern analyzers connect directly to the LIS, usually through middleware, so this link is bidirectional: the order goes out and the result comes back electronically, without manual typing, which cuts transcription errors.\n\n**Result entry:** results flow into the software automatically through the interface, or, for manual methods, are typed in by the technologist once the test finishes.\n\n**QC\u002FQA checking:** quality-control results for the instruments and reagents are reviewed to confirm the run is valid before patient results are accepted.\n\n**Delta check**: the LIS compares the patient's new result with their previous result for the same test. A large, unexpected change (a \"delta\" flag) can signal a mislabeled sample or a genuine clinical change, prompting a review before the result is released.\n\n**Autoverification**: as the final gate before release, the LIS applies rules that automatically release normal, expected results that have passed all checks, without a person reviewing each one. Results that fall outside the rules (very high, very low, inconsistent, or failing a delta check) are held for a technologist to review. This lets staff focus their attention on the results that actually need judgment.\n\n### Post analytical\n\nFinally, the post-analytical workflow includes:\n\n- **Reporting the result**: once entered and verified, the result is released and distributed. In a hospital, the LIS usually sends the verified result to the electronic health record (EHR) or hospital information system (HIS) through a messaging standard called HL7, so the ordering doctor sees it in the patient's chart. Results may also be printed, made available on a patient portal, or sent to a reference lab, all in a standard format.\n- **Archiving data\u002Fresult:** It includes recording the patient’s data and result for future references in the software even after distributing it.\n\n## Functions of LIS\n\nThe functions of LIS are as follows:\n\n- **Patient management:** It includes determining the admitted department of the patient, the physician assigned to the patient, and the type of specimen required from the patient.\n- **Tracking patient data:** LIS helps track patients’ demographic and laboratory data (laboratory results). Also, it helps in monitoring the status of sample processing. In case of readmission, it helps in retrieving the historical information of the patient so that the laboratory personnel and the hospital staff can choose the right path to provide care.\n- **Consistency and accuracy in generating results:** Since LIS helps standardize laboratory protocols and verify the results, it helps maintain consistent results for each patient. Likewise, the accuracy of the testing is verified and rechecked by authorized personnel.\n- **Quality assurance:** LIS not only helps in standard laboratory workflow but also helps maintain the quality of the tests in the laboratory. The LIS records data of every quality testing which helps generate any instrument’s health status report.\n- **Billing and charge capture:** the LIS links each test performed to the patient's account, so charges are captured automatically as tests are ordered and completed. This reduces missed charges and billing errors, and gives an accurate, itemized record of the services provided.\n\n## Benefits of LIS\n\nThe benefits of LIS are broadly classified into two groups. They are:\n\n### Benefits to the patient\n\n- Firstly, the patient will know the status of their laboratory test.\n- The results are available in digital as well as paper format.\n- It decreases the risk of duplicating the collection of samples because the processing and storing of the samples are well managed.\n- Shorter stay in the hospital\u002Fclinic due to digitalization and organized way of getting results.\n\n### Benefits to the laboratory personnel\n\n- It increases productivity due to a well-managed laboratory as well as inventory.\n- It decreases miscommunication between staff during change of shift about the procedures already carried out or needed to be performed because the results, as well as the tests, are digitized.\n- Likewise it makes obtaining the details of the patients like samples required\u002Falready used, and status of patients like the department they are situated in, their health conditions easier. These data help in eliminating false results during diagnosis.\n- It also helps obtain a history of a patient so that the right treatment can be given to the patient.\n- It also helps in forming a confirmed and concise report in a single file of a single patient.\n- Staff spend less time on manual data handling, freeing them for skilled bench work because the laboratory’s samples and inventory management becomes easy after using the software.\n\n## Criteria for Choosing LIS\n\nChoosing the perfect LIS for your laboratory depends on four main characteristics. They are:\n\n### Its speed\n\nA good LIS has a rapid response time, so screens and records load quickly even under heavy use. Its speed depends on both the storage\u002Fhardware behind it and the design of the application software. Firstly, enhancing the speed of LIS depends on the design\u002Foutlay of the application like an on-screen help menu, data attributes, and on-screen navigation. Another factor, the storage capacity, depends on the efficiency of the storage disk and retrieval of the stored data.\n\n### Its connectivity\n\nConnectivity of LIS means how easily one can access the data from different departments of hospitals like a laboratory, patient’s room, hospital floor, clinics, or doctor’s office. Connectivity to the available network of the laboratory is also very crucial. The LIS connects to the lab's network and to the hospital information system, along with printers, analyzers, and other components of the laboratory computer system. When the network is well designed, adding a new computer or instrument, or upgrading the LIS, becomes much easier. So during the selection of LIS, one should also consider the type of hospital information system (HIS) used.\n\n### How adaptable it is\n\nThe need for laboratories like new instruments and rotation of laboratory staff keeps changing from time to time. So, LIS needs to be the most adaptable to any change. Similarly, the LIS should be able to modify as per the time requirement.\n\n### How reliable it is\n\nThe LIS should be reliable in such a way that the software functions without interference or constant maintenance. The downtime in any reliable LIS is very low. The disk mirroring and real-time backup of the LIS software determines its reliability.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**LIS = the lab's nervous system, order to report.** If you remember one thing, remember that the LIS carries a sample's whole journey from the doctor's order to the final report. Every other feature hangs off that thread.\n\n**The workflow follows the three analytical phases.** Pre-analytical (order, accession, barcode), analytical (test, interface, verify), post-analytical (report via HL7, archive). This is the same pre\u002Fanalytical\u002Fpost framework used for lab errors and quality, so it doubles as a memory scaffold you already know.\n\n**LIS is patient-centric; LIMS is sample-centric.** The one-line distinction. A clinical diagnostic lab uses an LIS built around the patient record; a research or QC lab uses a LIMS built around the sample\u002Fbatch. Patient vs. sample is the whole difference in three words.\n\n**Autoverification = the LIS handles the normal, humans handle the abnormal.** The point of autoverification is to free staff from checking routine normal results so they can focus on the ones that need judgment. \"Auto-release the normal, flag the strange.\"\n\n## Key exam facts\n\n| Point | Fact | Memory aid |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| What LIS is | Software managing patient samples and results, order to report | The lab's nervous system |\n| LIS vs LIMS | LIS = patient-centric (clinical); LIMS = sample-centric (research\u002FQC) | Patient vs sample |\n| Three components | Sample tracking, protocol\u002Fworkflow control, storage management | Track, control, store |\n| Accessioning | Registering a new specimen and assigning its unique ID | Where sample becomes record |\n| Workflow phases | Pre-analytical, analytical, post-analytical | Same as lab-error phases |\n| Instrument interfacing | Analyzers send results to LIS electronically (bidirectional, via middleware) | No manual typing |\n| Autoverification | Rules auto-release normal results; abnormal held for review | Auto-release normal, flag strange |\n| Delta check | Compares new result with patient's previous result; flags big changes | Catch mislabeled samples |\n| HL7 | Standard used to send results to the EHR\u002FHIS | The language LIS speaks to the EHR |\n| Key benefit | Fewer transcription errors; full traceability of every sample | Right result, tracked end to end |\n| Billing function | Links tests to patient account for automatic charge capture | Charge capture, not free service |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"What is the difference between LIS and LIMS?\"** An LIS is patient-centric and used in clinical diagnostic labs; results are tied to a patient record and sent to the hospital system. A LIMS is sample-centric and used in research, QC, and industrial labs; it tracks samples and batches through a process. The terms are often used interchangeably because modern products blur the line, but the origin and emphasis differ: patient versus sample.\n\n**\"What does accessioning mean?\"** Accessioning is the step where a specimen arriving in the lab is registered in the LIS and given a unique ID (an accession number). It is the moment a physical tube becomes a trackable electronic record, and every later step refers back to that ID.\n\n**\"What is autoverification, and is it safe?\"** Autoverification is a set of rules in the LIS that automatically release results which are normal and pass all checks, without a person reviewing each one. It is safe because results that fall outside the rules (abnormal, inconsistent, or failing a delta check) are held for a human to review. It speeds up routine reporting while keeping judgment on the results that need it.\n\n**\"How does the LIS talk to the hospital's system?\"** Usually through a messaging standard called HL7. When a result is verified in the LIS, an HL7 message carries it to the electronic health record or hospital information system, so the ordering doctor sees it in the patient's chart. HL7 is the shared language that lets separate systems exchange lab data.\n\n**\"Is the LIS the same as the analyzer or the middleware?\"** No. The analyzer is the instrument that runs the test; the middleware is a layer that sits between analyzers and the LIS, handling result flow and some rules; the LIS is the overall system that manages the sample, the patient record, and the report. They work together but are different layers.\n\n## **References**\n\n1. Forest JC, Rheault C, Dang-Vu T. The laboratory information system (LIS): I. Application to the clinical chemistry laboratory. Clin Biochem. 1985;18(2):78-84. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fs0009-9120(85)80085-0>\n2. College of American Pathologists (CAP). Laboratory Accreditation Program: information systems and interface requirements. Northfield (IL): CAP. Available from: \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.cap.org>\n3. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). AUTO10: Autoverification of Medical Laboratory Results for Specific Disciplines. Wayne (PA): CLSI.\n4. Health Level Seven International (HL7). About HL7 and clinical data interoperability standards. Available from: \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.hl7.org>\n5. Sepulveda JL, Young DS. The ideal laboratory information system. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2013;137(8):1129-1140. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.5858\u002Farpa.2012-0362-RA>\n6. International Organization for Standardization. ISO 15189: Medical laboratories: Requirements for quality and competence. Geneva: ISO.",[50,53,56,59,62,65],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>What is a laboratory information system (LIS)?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A laboratory information system is software that manages patient samples and their results in a clinical laboratory, from the moment a test is ordered to the final report. It records sample and patient details, tracks specimens through testing, captures and verifies results, sends them to the hospital record, and stores the data.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between LIS and LIMS?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An LIS is patient-centric and used in clinical diagnostic labs, with results tied to a patient record. A LIMS is sample-centric and used in research, QC, and industrial labs, tracking samples and batches through a process. The terms are often used interchangeably, but that patient-versus-sample focus is the core difference.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>What are the main components of an LIS?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Three core components: sample tracking (accessioning and barcoding specimens), protocol and workflow control (standardizing how tests are done and results verified), and storage management (organizing retained samples for retrieval). Together they let the lab know where every sample is and what has been done to it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>What is the workflow of an LIS?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It follows the three analytical phases. Pre-analytical: order entry, accessioning, and barcoding. Analytical: assigning the test, interfacing with analyzers, entering and verifying results, and quality control. Post-analytical: releasing the report (usually to the EHR via HL7) and archiving the data.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>What is autoverification in an LIS?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Autoverification is a set of rules that automatically release results which are normal and pass all checks, without a person reviewing each one. Abnormal or inconsistent results are held for a technologist to review, so staff focus on the results that need human judgment.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>What are the benefits of an LIS?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It reduces transcription errors, gives full traceability of every sample, speeds up reporting, links results to the patient record, standardizes workflow and quality control, and captures billing accurately. For patients, it means faster, more reliable results; for lab staff, less manual work and clearer handovers between shifts.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[70],{"slug":71,"title":72,"description":73,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":74,"lastUpdatedDate":75,"draft":46,"category":76,"image":42,"faq":77,"tags":93},"laboratory-freezers-temperature-range-and-inventory-management","Laboratory Freezers: Temperature Ranges, What to Store at Each, and Inventory Management","Laboratory freezer temperature ranges explained, which biological samples belong at -20°C, -80°C, or in liquid nitrogen, why freeze-thaw damages specimens, and how to manage freezer inventory. A practical guide for lab science students.","2022-06-09","2026-08-25","lab-equipment",[78,81,84,87,90],{"question":79,"answer":80},"What is the difference between a −20°C and a −80°C laboratory freezer?","A −20°C freezer is the standard laboratory freezer, used for routine and short-term storage of reagents, DNA, and chemicals. A −80°C ultra-low temperature freezer is used for long-term storage of sensitive samples such as serum, RNA, enzymes, and bacterial or viral stocks, because colder temperatures slow degradation much more effectively.",{"question":82,"answer":83},"Why are cells stored in liquid nitrogen instead of a −80°C freezer?","Living cells need temperatures below −150°C to remain viable for years, because at warmer freezer temperatures biological activity continues slowly and eventually kills them. Liquid nitrogen storage (−196°C liquid, or about −150 to −190°C vapor) halts this activity, so it is used for cell lines, stem cells, and long-term viable microbial stocks.",{"question":85,"answer":86},"Why is glycerol added before freezing bacteria?","Glycerol is a cryoprotectant. It reduces the formation of ice crystals that would otherwise rupture bacterial cells during freezing, allowing the culture to survive long-term storage at −80°C. Cell lines use DMSO for the same purpose.",{"question":88,"answer":89},"Why should samples be stored in small aliquots?","Each freeze-thaw cycle damages a sample by shearing DNA, denaturing proteins, and rupturing cells. Storing a sample as several small single-use aliquots means each tube is thawed only once, protecting the rest of the sample from repeated damage.",{"question":91,"answer":92},"What happens if a −80°C freezer fails?","As the freezer warms, stored samples begin to thaw and degrade, and many, such as isolates, serum, and nucleic acids, are irreplaceable once damaged. Laboratories reduce this risk with temperature alarms, backup CO₂ or liquid nitrogen backup systems, and by keeping critical samples split across more than one freezer.",[94],"laboratory-storage-and-preservation",{"enabled":96,"threads":97,"total":98},true,[],0,[100,107,113,120,126,131,137,142,148,151,158],{"slug":101,"name":102,"description":103,"image":104,"body":105,"postCount":106},"acharya-tankeshwar","Acharya Tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",480,{"slug":108,"name":43,"description":109,"image":110,"body":111,"postCount":112},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":114,"name":115,"description":116,"image":117,"body":118,"postCount":119},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":121,"name":122,"description":116,"image":123,"body":124,"postCount":125},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":127,"name":128,"description":116,"image":42,"body":129,"postCount":130},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":132,"name":133,"description":134,"image":42,"body":135,"postCount":136},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":138,"name":139,"description":140,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":141},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":143,"name":144,"description":116,"image":145,"body":146,"postCount":147},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":149,"name":150,"description":140,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":141},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":152,"name":153,"description":154,"image":155,"body":156,"postCount":157},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":159,"name":160,"description":161,"image":162,"body":163,"postCount":141},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[165,172,178,183,188,193,197,201,205,210,214,219,223,228,233,237,241,245,250,255,259,263,267,272,276,280,284,288,293,298,302,306,310,315,319,323,327,331,335,339,343,347,351,355,359,363,367,370,375,379,383,387,391,395,399,403,407,411,415,419,423,427,431,435,439,443,447,451,454,458,461,464,467,470,473,476,479,482,485,488,491,494,497],{"slug":166,"name":167,"description":168,"image":169,"body":170,"postCount":171},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":173,"name":174,"description":175,"image":42,"body":176,"postCount":177},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":179,"name":180,"description":181,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":182},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":184,"name":185,"description":186,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":189,"name":190,"description":191,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":192},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":194,"name":195,"description":196,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":182},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":198,"name":199,"description":200,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":202,"name":203,"description":204,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":206,"name":207,"description":208,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":211,"name":212,"description":213,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":215,"name":216,"description":217,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":220,"name":221,"description":222,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":224,"name":225,"description":226,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":229,"name":230,"description":231,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":232},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":234,"name":235,"description":236,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":238,"name":239,"description":42,"image":42,"body":240,"postCount":130},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":242,"name":243,"description":42,"image":42,"body":244,"postCount":227},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":246,"name":247,"description":248,"image":42,"body":249,"postCount":209},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":251,"name":252,"description":253,"image":42,"body":254,"postCount":130},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":256,"name":257,"description":258,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":262,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":264,"name":265,"description":266,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":268,"name":269,"description":270,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":271},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":273,"name":274,"description":275,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":277,"name":278,"description":279,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":281,"name":282,"description":283,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":285,"name":286,"description":287,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":289,"name":290,"description":291,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":292},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":299,"name":300,"description":301,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":303,"name":304,"description":305,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":192},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":307,"name":308,"description":309,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":311,"name":312,"description":313,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":324,"name":325,"description":326,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":330,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":292},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":332,"name":333,"description":334,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":340,"name":341,"description":342,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":344,"name":345,"description":346,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":136},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":352,"name":353,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":356,"name":357,"description":358,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":362,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":177},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":364,"name":365,"description":366,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":94,"name":368,"description":369,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":374,"postCount":130},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":136},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":380,"name":381,"description":382,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":384,"name":385,"description":386,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":388,"name":389,"description":390,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":141},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":392,"name":393,"description":394,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":396,"name":397,"description":398,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":400,"name":401,"description":402,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":182},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":410,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":192},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":192},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":209},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":141},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":462,"name":463,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":465,"name":466,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":471,"name":472,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":130},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":474,"name":475,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":480,"name":481,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":483,"name":484,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":486,"name":487,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":292},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]