[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$f60yEJDcneVc1xwXbNvswlbiK1RW7jqOgiPmEZ6DkE4c":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":205,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":269},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":49,"related":51,"comments":201},"laboratory-accreditation-microbiology-iso-15189-nabl","Laboratory Accreditation in Microbiology: ISO 15189, NABL, and What It Means","\u003Cp>What laboratory accreditation is, how it differs from certification, what ISO 15189 requires, and how a microbiology laboratory achieves and maintains accreditation through bodies such as NABL.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-09-07",false,"general-microbiology","A clinician trusts a culture result from a laboratory without ever seeing how that laboratory works, whether the staff are competent, whether the methods are sound, whether the equipment was working. That trust does not come from the report itself; it comes from a mark on it saying an independent body has examined the laboratory and confirmed it is competent to produce that result.\n\n**That examination is accreditation**, and understanding what it actually certifies, and what it does not, is part of understanding how laboratory results earn the confidence placed in them.\n\n## First, where accreditation sits\n\nQuality in a laboratory is built in layers. Quality control (QC) checks that a test is working now; quality assurance (QA) is the wider system that makes the whole process reliable; and the quality management system (QMS) is the documented framework that organizes it all. How those three nest, and the day-to-day QC and quality-assessment activities inside them, are covered in the [quality control in the microbiology laboratory](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fquality-control-microbiology-laboratory\u002F) overview.\n\nAccreditation sits on top of that structure. It is the point at which an outside body examines the laboratory's whole quality system and its technical work and formally confirms both are sound. This article is about that top layer: what accreditation is, what standard it is measured against, who grants it, and how a laboratory earns and keeps it.\n\n## What accreditation is\n\nAccreditation is formal recognition by an independent, authoritative body that a laboratory is competent to carry out specific tests to a defined standard. Two words in that sentence carry the weight. Independent: the judgment comes from outside the laboratory, not from its own staff. Competent: the recognition is not just that the laboratory has procedures, but that it can actually produce correct results.\n\n**Accreditation is always scoped to specific tests.** A laboratory is not accredited in general; **it is accredited for the particular tests or disciplines it has been assessed for.** A microbiology laboratory might be accredited for its bacterial culture and susceptibility testing but not for a molecular assay it has only just introduced. The scope of accreditation is part of what the certificate states.\n\n## Accreditation versus certification: the distinction that matters\n\nThese two are constantly confused, and the difference is easy to state but easy to get wrong.\n\n- **Certification** is confirmation that a laboratory has a quality management system that conforms to a standard. It answers: does the machinery of quality exist and is it documented? A laboratory can be certified to a general quality standard (such as ISO 9001) by showing it has the processes and follows them.\n- **Accreditation** goes one step further and confirms technical competence as well as conformance. It answers not only \"does the quality system exist?\" but \"can this laboratory actually produce correct, reliable results for these specific tests?\" That second question is assessed by technical experts who examine the methods, the equipment, the personnel's competence, and the results themselves, not just the paperwork.\n\n**For a medical laboratory, competence is the point**. A well-documented quality system that still produces wrong culture results helps no patient. This is why medical laboratories pursue accreditation, which tests competence, rather than certification alone, which tests conformance. The short form: certification says the system exists; accreditation says the laboratory is competent.\n\n## ISO 15189: the standard for medical laboratories\n\nAccreditation is measured against a standard, and for medical laboratories that standard is ISO 15189, \"Medical laboratories, requirements for quality and competence.\" The title states its two halves, and both matter.\n\n1. **The quality (management) requirements** cover the organizational side: the quality management system, document control, management of records, handling of errors and complaints, internal audit, and continual improvement, the same QMS structure the QC overview describes.\n2. **The competence (technical) requirements** cover the ability to produce correct results: the competence and training of personnel, the suitability and maintenance of equipment, the validation and verification of methods, the control of the pre-analytical and post-analytical phases, and the accuracy of reporting.\n\nThis second half is what distinguishes ISO 15189 from ISO 9001. ISO 9001 is a general quality-management standard usable by any organization; it checks that a quality system conforms. ISO 15189 adds the technical competence requirements specific to medical testing, which is why it, and not ISO 9001, is the standard on which medical-laboratory accreditation is built. A laboratory can hold ISO 9001 certification and still not be competent to release patient results; ISO 15189 accreditation is designed to close exactly that gap.\n\n## Who grants accreditation: the accreditation bodies\n\n**Accreditation is granted by a national accreditation body**, an organization authorized to assess laboratories against ISO 15189 and confer accreditation. In India, this is NABL, the National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories. Other countries have their own bodies (for example, CAP and A2LA in the United States, UKAS in the United Kingdom), and international arrangements allow accreditation by one recognized body to be accepted across borders.\n\nWhatever the body, its role is the same: to send trained assessors, including technical experts in the relevant discipline, to examine the laboratory against the standard and decide whether it meets the requirements for the tests in its scope. The body does not run the laboratory or improve it; it independently judges it, which is what makes its recognition credible to the clinicians and patients who rely on the results.\n\n## How a laboratory achieves accreditation\n\n**Accreditation is earned through a process, not bought.** The path is broadly the same across bodies.\n\nThe laboratory first builds and runs its quality management system: it writes and controls its SOPs, establishes QC and quality-assessment activities, trains and assesses staff, maintains and calibrates equipment, and generates records showing all of this is happening. Crucially, it must run this system for a period before assessment, because accreditation examines evidence of sustained practice, not a snapshot.\n\nThe laboratory then applies to the accreditation body and undergoes assessment. Assessors review the documentation (the quality manual, SOPs, records), then visit the laboratory to observe practice directly, checking that staff actually follow the SOPs, that QC and EQA records are complete, that equipment is maintained, and that the laboratory does what its documents say. Where the assessors find gaps (non-conformities), the laboratory must correct them and show evidence of correction before accreditation is granted.\n\nAccreditation is then awarded for the specific scope of tests assessed. It is common for the assessment to reveal issues that must be resolved first, so preparing for accreditation is itself a substantial quality-improvement exercise, often the point at which a laboratory's quality system genuinely matures.\n\n## How accreditation is maintained\n\nAccreditation is not a permanent certificate. It is granted for a defined period and must be maintained and renewed.\n\nBetween assessments, the laboratory must keep operating its quality system and demonstrate ongoing compliance: continuing QC and EQA, internal audits, management review, and correction of any problems that arise. The accreditation body conducts periodic surveillance assessments during the accreditation cycle and a full reassessment before renewal. If a laboratory stops meeting the requirements, its accreditation can be suspended or withdrawn for the affected scope.\n\nThis ongoing nature is the point. Accreditation certifies sustained competence, not a single passing inspection, which is why it carries the weight it does. A one-time pass would prove little; continued accreditation shows the laboratory holds the standard over time.\n\n## Why accreditation matters for the laboratory and the patient\n\nAccreditation delivers value on several levels. For the patient and clinician, it provides independent assurance that results can be trusted, which is the whole purpose. For the laboratory, the discipline of achieving and holding accreditation drives real improvement: better documentation, tighter QC, competent staff, maintained equipment, and fewer errors. It also enables recognition of results across laboratories and borders, and it is increasingly required for reimbursement, for participation in networks, and for institutional credibility.\n\nThe deeper point is that accreditation is the external expression of everything else in the quality structure. A laboratory cannot be accredited without working SOPs, functioning QC, competent staff, and a genuine QMS. Accreditation is not a separate activity bolted on at the end; it is the independent confirmation that the whole quality system, the subject of the QC overview and the SOPs that run it, is real and working.\n\n## How to remember\n\n- **Certification says the system exists; accreditation says the lab is competent.** The one distinction to hold above all others. Accreditation checks technical competence, not just that procedures are documented.\n- **ISO 15189 = quality + competence, which is why it beats ISO 9001 for medical labs.** ISO 9001 checks the system conforms; ISO 15189 adds the technical competence requirements specific to medical testing.\n- **Accreditation is scoped, earned, and ongoing.** It applies to specific tests, is granted only after assessors verify sustained practice, and is maintained through surveillance and reassessment. Not general, not bought, not permanent.\n- **It rests on everything below it.** No working SOPs, QC, competent staff, and QMS, no accreditation. Accreditation is the external confirmation that the quality structure is genuinely working.\n\n## Key facts\n\n| Term | What it is |\n| --- | --- |\n| Accreditation | Independent recognition that a lab is competent to perform specific tests to a standard |\n| Certification | Confirmation that a quality system conforms to a standard (conformance, not competence) |\n| Accreditation vs certification | Certification: system exists. Accreditation: system exists AND lab is technically competent |\n| ISO 15189 | International standard for medical laboratories; covers quality management AND technical competence |\n| ISO 15189 vs ISO 9001 | 9001: general, conformance only. 15189: medical-specific, adds technical competence |\n| Scope | Accreditation applies only to the specific tests\u002Fdisciplines assessed |\n| Accreditation body | National body that assesses against ISO 15189 and grants accreditation (e.g. NABL in India) |\n| Assessment | Document review + on-site observation by trained assessors including technical experts |\n| Non-conformity | A gap found at assessment; must be corrected with evidence before accreditation is granted |\n| Maintenance | Periodic surveillance assessments and full reassessment; can be suspended or withdrawn |\n| Prerequisite | A functioning QMS run for a period: SOPs, QC, EQA, trained staff, maintained equipment |\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n**\"Accreditation and certification are the same thing.\"** Certification confirms a quality system conforms to a standard. Accreditation confirms both conformance and technical competence to produce correct results. For medical laboratories, accreditation (against ISO 15189) is the meaningful goal, because competence, not just documented procedures, is what protects the patient.\n\n**\"ISO 15189 and ISO 9001 are interchangeable.\"** ISO 9001 is a general quality-management standard that checks a system conforms. ISO 15189 is specific to medical laboratories and adds technical competence requirements (personnel competence, method validation, equipment, reporting) that ISO 9001 does not. Medical-lab accreditation uses ISO 15189.\n\n**\"A laboratory is accredited for everything it does.\"** No. Accreditation is scoped to the specific tests or disciplines assessed. A laboratory can be accredited for some tests and not others, and a newly introduced test is not covered until it has been assessed and added to the scope.\n\n**\"Once accredited, always accredited.\"** Accreditation is granted for a period and maintained through ongoing compliance, surveillance assessments, and reassessment. It can be suspended or withdrawn if the laboratory stops meeting the standard. It certifies sustained competence, not a one-time pass.\n\n**\"Accreditation is paperwork you complete at the end.\"** It is the independent confirmation that the entire quality system, SOPs, QC, competent staff, maintained equipment, is genuinely working. A laboratory cannot be accredited without those already in place and running; preparing for accreditation is what often matures a laboratory's quality system in the first place.\n\n## References\n\n1. International Organization for Standardization. *ISO 15189: Medical laboratories, Requirements for quality and competence.* Geneva: ISO.\n2. Carey RB, Bhattacharyya S, Kehl SC, et al. Implementing a Quality Management System in the Medical Microbiology Laboratory. *Clin Microbiol Rev.* 2018;31(3):e00062-17. doi:10.1128\u002FCMR.00062-17\n3. World Health Organization. *Laboratory Quality Management System: Handbook.* Geneva: World Health Organization.\n4. Leber AL, editor. *Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook.* 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016. doi:10.1128\u002F9781683670438.CMPH",[],[50],"laboratory-management",[52,81,106,112,118,124,148,193],{"slug":53,"title":54,"description":55,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":56,"lastUpdatedDate":56,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":57,"tags":79},"quality-control-microbiology-laboratory","Quality Control in the Microbiology Laboratory: Concepts, Components, and How It All Fits","\u003Cp>What quality control means in a microbiology laboratory, how QC, quality assurance, and a quality management system relate, internal QC versus external quality assessment, and the components from media and strains to equipment and reporting, with links to each in detail.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-20",[58,61,64,67,70,73,76],{"question":59,"answer":60},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between quality control and quality assurance in a laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Quality control is the day-to-day checking that a specific test or material is working, such as running a control strain with a batch of medium. Quality assurance is the wider system that tracks those controls over time and covers everything affecting the result, including equipment, competency, procedures, specimen handling, and reporting. Quality control sits inside quality assurance, which in turn sits inside the quality management system.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":62,"answer":63},"\u003Cp>Why is quality control in microbiology different from clinical chemistry?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Much of microbiology is qualitative and depends on interpretation, whether a medium grows the correct organism, whether a stain reacts properly, whether a smear is read correctly, rather than on a single measured number. So microbiology QC relies heavily on known reference strains and on personnel competency, rather than on numeric control limits alone.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":65,"answer":66},"\u003Cp>What are the main components of quality control in a microbiology laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Culture media QC, reference (QC) strains, reagent and stain QC, antimicrobial susceptibility testing QC, equipment QC, personnel competency, and critical result reporting. Each checks a different part of the testing process, and each has its own detailed procedures.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":68,"answer":69},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between internal quality control and external quality assessment?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Internal quality control is performed by the laboratory on its own materials as part of daily work. External quality assessment, or proficiency testing, is performed by an outside provider that sends blind unknown samples to many laboratories and compares the results. Internal QC catches day-to-day faults; external assessment catches systematic errors a lab cannot see in itself and benchmarks it against peers.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":71,"answer":72},"\u003Cp>Which phase of testing produces the most laboratory errors?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The pre-analytical phase, before testing begins, is the largest source of error. It includes ordering the correct test and collecting, labeling, transporting, and storing the specimen properly. A flawless analysis of a wrong or degraded specimen still gives a wrong result.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":74,"answer":75},"\u003Cp>What happens when a quality control check fails?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The run is considered invalid, and patient results are held until the cause is identified and corrected, whether a degraded reagent, a faulty medium, an out-of-range incubator, or a technique problem. The control's purpose is to fail so that an incorrect patient result is never released.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":77,"answer":78},"\u003Cp>What is a quality management system?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A quality management system is the formal, documented framework that integrates all quality activities across the laboratory. The recognized model, CLSI QMS01, organizes it into twelve quality system essentials covering the entire testing process, and it is the basis for laboratory accreditation.\u003C\u002Fp>",[80],"quality-control",{"slug":82,"title":83,"description":84,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":85,"image":42,"faq":86,"tags":105},"standard-operating-procedures-sops-microbiology","Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in Microbiology: What They Are and How to Write One","\u003Cp>What a standard operating procedure is, why the microbiology laboratory runs on SOPs, and a step-by-step guide to writing a clear, usable SOP with the sections it must contain.\u003C\u002Fp>","lab-equipment",[87,90,93,96,99,102],{"question":88,"answer":89},"\u003Cp>What is a standard operating procedure (SOP) in a laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a written, approved document that describes exactly how to carry out a specific laboratory activity, step by step, so that anyone trained to use it performs the activity the same way every time. SOPs cover tests, equipment, quality control, safety, and the steps around testing such as specimen acceptance and reporting.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":91,"answer":92},"\u003Cp>Why are SOPs important in microbiology?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They remove variation between operators, so the same sample gives the same result no matter who runs it. They preserve know-how and train new staff, they underpin safety, and they are the foundation of every quality system and accreditation standard such as ISO 15189.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":94,"answer":95},"\u003Cp>What sections should a microbiology SOP contain?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Document control (title, number, version, date, approvals), purpose\u002Fscope, responsibilities, materials and equipment, safety considerations, the step-by-step procedure, quality control, interpretation and reporting, and references.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":97,"answer":98},"\u003Cp>How do you write a good SOP?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Write for a competent new staff member: number the steps, one action each, in order; state every critical detail (temperature, time, concentration, volume, endpoint) precisely; use plain, direct, active-voice language; include a quality-control section; and say what to do when something goes wrong. Then have it reviewed, approved, and version-controlled.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":100,"answer":101},"\u003Cp>How often should an SOP be reviewed?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Periodically, commonly every one to two years, and additionally whenever the procedure changes (a new reagent, instrument, or standard). Each change creates a new approved version, and the superseded version is withdrawn so only the current one is in use.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":103,"answer":104},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between an SOP and a protocol or a textbook method?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A textbook method describes how a procedure works in general. An SOP is that method made specific to one laboratory, controlled (numbered, versioned, approved), and complete with document control, safety, QC, and reporting, so it can be followed identically and traced over time.\u003C\u002Fp>",[50],{"slug":107,"title":108,"description":109,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":85,"image":42,"faq":110,"tags":111},"microbiology-laboratory-design-and-layout","Microbiology Laboratory Design and Layout: How a Lab Is Organized and Why","\u003Cp>How a microbiology laboratory is laid out, the unidirectional clean-to-dirty workflow, zoning, biosafety cabinet placement, and the design principles that keep work safe and contamination-free.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[50],{"slug":113,"title":114,"description":115,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":85,"image":42,"faq":116,"tags":117},"automation-microbiology-laboratory","Automation in the Microbiology Laboratory: A Step-by-Step Guide to the Instruments","\u003Cp>How each step of the microbiology workflow is automated, from media preparation to identification and susceptibility, and where standalone instruments end and full integration begins.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[50],{"slug":119,"title":120,"description":121,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":122,"tags":123},"running-a-microbiology-laboratory","Running a Microbiology Laboratory: How the Whole Lab Works Together","\u003Cp>What it takes to run a microbiology laboratory, the facility, workflow from specimen to report, safety, equipment, and the quality system that governs it all, with a guide to each part.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[50],{"slug":125,"title":126,"description":127,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":85,"image":42,"faq":128,"tags":147},"laboratory-requisition-form-microbiology","The Laboratory Requisition Form: Why Every Field Matters","\u003Cp>The requisition form is how a clinician talks to the microbiology laboratory. What each field means, what a blank field costs, and why filling it completely changes the diagnosis.\u003C\u002Fp>",[129,132,135,138,141,144],{"question":130,"answer":131},"\u003Cp>What is a laboratory requisition form?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is the document, paper or electronic, by which a clinician requests a laboratory test and provides the information the laboratory needs to perform and interpret it correctly. Under ISO 15189 it is a required part of the pre-analytical process and must carry defined information such as patient identification, specimen type, the test requested, and relevant clinical details.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":133,"answer":134},"\u003Cp>What information must a microbiology request form contain?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>At minimum: patient identification (name and a unique identifier, with age and sex), the requesting clinician and contact, the specimen type and exact site, the specific test requested, relevant clinical information, current or recent antibiotics, and the date and time of collection. The laboratory then records the date and time of receipt.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":136,"answer":137},"\u003Cp>Why do clinicians need to write the clinical details and diagnosis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because the laboratory tailors what it looks for and how it interprets the result to the clinical question. \"Fever, query typhoid\" makes the laboratory hold blood cultures longer and look specifically for \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem>; with no information it works blind. The clinical details turn a generic culture into a targeted investigation.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":139,"answer":140},"\u003Cp>Why does the form ask whether the patient is on antibiotics?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because antibiotics suppress the growth of the organism the laboratory is trying to isolate. A patient already on antibiotics can grow nothing despite a genuine infection, producing a false-negative culture. Knowing the antibiotic history lets the laboratory interpret a no-growth result correctly.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":142,"answer":143},"\u003Cp>Why does the collection time matter?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Microbiology specimens change with time: delicate organisms die and contaminants overgrow. Without the collection time, the laboratory cannot judge how long the specimen has been in transit or whether its quality has degraded, so it cannot tell a reliable result from an unreliable one.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":145,"answer":146},"\u003Cp>Can a laboratory reject a specimen because of the form?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. An inadequate form, no patient identifier, a form and specimen that do not match, or an unreadable request, is a legitimate reason to reject a specimen, because a result on a misidentified specimen is dangerous. Completing the form properly is part of what keeps the specimen from being rejected and the patient from being re-sampled.\u003C\u002Fp>",[50],{"slug":149,"title":150,"description":151,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":152,"lastUpdatedDate":153,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":154,"tags":191},"microbiology-laboratory-safety-rules-procedure","Microbiology Laboratory Safety Rules and Procedures (Good Microbiological Practice)","The essential safety rules for a microbiology laboratory: PPE, aseptic technique, aerosol control, sharps, spills, and waste handling, organized by the four routes of laboratory-acquired infection.","2014-01-23","2026-07-23",[155,158,161,164,167,170,173,176,179,182,185,188],{"question":156,"answer":157},"What is the most common laboratory-acquired infection?","Brucellosis, caused by Brucella species. It spreads mainly by inhaling aerosols generated at the bench, and most reported cases involved no recognized accident, which is why aerosol control and biosafety cabinet use matter so much.",{"question":159,"answer":160},"Why is mouth pipetting prohibited in the microbiology laboratory?","It allows pathogens or chemicals to be drawn into the mouth and swallowed. Mechanical pipetting devices remove this route entirely, which is why mouth pipetting is banned outright.",{"question":162,"answer":163},"What should you do immediately after a biological spill?","Cover the spill with absorbent paper, apply disinfectant from the outer edge inward, allow the recommended contact time, then clear and discard the material as biohazard waste. Report and record the spill afterward.",{"question":165,"answer":166},"Do these foundational lab safety rules apply only to teaching labs, or do they apply in BSL3 and BSL4 facilities too?","These rules apply in every microbiology laboratory, regardless of biosafety level. Teaching labs, BSL2 diagnostic labs, BSL3 research facilities; all follow these same foundational practices. What changes across biosafety levels is additional containment requirements, not replacement of these basics.",{"question":168,"answer":169},"Why is handwashing required after removing gloves if the gloves protected my hands?","Gloves are a barrier, but they can have undetected micro-holes, and you may have touched your skin or face while wearing them. Handwashing after glove removal ensures that even microscopic contamination that penetrated or bypassed the glove barrier is removed before you handle food, touch your face, or leave the lab.",{"question":171,"answer":172},"Why is \"no eating\" enforced even in teaching labs with non-pathogenic organisms?","Teaching labs teach practices that become automatic in real labs. More importantly, teaching labs are never completely free of unexpected contamination — organisms from the air, from other benches, from cross-contamination. The rule is universal because the risk, though lower in a teaching context, is never zero.",{"question":174,"answer":175},"What should I do if I get a small cut or needle stick in the lab?","Report it immediately, even if it seems minor. Occupational infections have started from tiny punctures that seemed insignificant. Early reporting enables medical evaluation, wound care, and prophylaxis if needed, and creates a record that proves the injury occurred in the lab (important for workers' compensation and occupational health follow-up).",{"question":177,"answer":178},"Why is aerosol prevention such a big deal if I can't see aerosols anyway?","Aerosol inhalation is the primary occupational exposure route in a microbiology lab. Unlike a splash you can see and wash off, an aerosol enters your lungs before you know it's there. Once it's inhaled, containment is impossible. Prevention (no mouth pipetting, using a BSC for aerosol-generating procedures) is the only effective strategy.",{"question":180,"answer":181},"Is it okay to eat in the lab if I wash my hands first?","No. Even if you wash your hands, contamination can be present on surfaces you then contact while eating, or in the air as an aerosol that lands on your food. The only safe rule is no eating in the lab at all, not even \"just a quick bite.\"",{"question":183,"answer":184},"What are the four routes of laboratory-acquired infection?","Inhalation of aerosols, ingestion by hand-to-mouth transfer, inoculation through needlesticks or cuts, and contact or splash onto the eyes, mouth, or broken skin. Every laboratory safety rule exists to close one of these four routes.",{"question":186,"answer":187},"Why is handwashing considered the single most effective lab safety measure","Gloves and other PPE can fail through unseen holes or misuse, but correct handwashing reliably removes organisms before they reach a break in the skin or a mucous membrane. It is the most direct control on the contact and ingestion routes.",{"question":189,"answer":190},"Why are aerosols the most dangerous route in a microbiology lab?","Aerosols are invisible, leave nothing to clean up, and are inhaled before anyone knows they were generated. Opening a plate, flaming a loaded loop, uncapping after centrifugation, and vortexing all produce them, which is why aerosol-generating work moves into a biological safety cabinet.",[192],"biosafety-levels",{"slug":194,"title":195,"description":196,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":197,"createdDate":198,"lastUpdatedDate":153,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":199,"tags":200},"hospital-and-laboratory-waste-management","Hospital and Laboratory Waste Management: Classification, Segregation, Treatment, and Disposal","WHO color-coded segregation, how to decontaminate laboratory cultures before disposal, the four rules of sharps safety, and the time-critical post-exposure protocol after a needlestick injury, including what to do where incinerators are unavailable.","Srijana Khanal","2022-06-25",[],[],{"enabled":202,"threads":203,"total":204},true,[],0,[206,212,219,226,232,237,243,248,253,256,263],{"slug":207,"name":43,"description":208,"image":209,"body":210,"postCount":211},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",516,{"slug":213,"name":214,"description":215,"image":216,"body":217,"postCount":218},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",88,{"slug":220,"name":221,"description":222,"image":223,"body":224,"postCount":225},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":227,"name":228,"description":222,"image":229,"body":230,"postCount":231},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":233,"name":234,"description":222,"image":42,"body":235,"postCount":236},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":238,"name":239,"description":240,"image":42,"body":241,"postCount":242},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":244,"name":245,"description":246,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":249,"name":197,"description":222,"image":250,"body":251,"postCount":252},"srijana-khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":254,"name":255,"description":246,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":257,"name":258,"description":259,"image":260,"body":261,"postCount":262},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",55,{"slug":264,"name":265,"description":266,"image":267,"body":268,"postCount":247},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[270,277,283,287,292,297,301,305,309,314,318,323,327,332,337,342,346,350,355,360,364,368,372,376,379,383,387,391,396,401,406,410,414,419,423,427,431,435,439,443,447,451,455,458,462,467,471,475,480,484,488,492,496,500,504,509,513,517,521,525,529,533,537,541,545,549,553,557,560,564,567,570,573,576,579,581,584,587,590,593,596,599,602,605,608,611,615,618],{"slug":271,"name":272,"description":273,"image":274,"body":275,"postCount":276},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":278,"name":279,"description":280,"image":42,"body":281,"postCount":282},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":286,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",{"slug":288,"name":289,"description":290,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":293,"name":294,"description":295,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":302,"name":303,"description":304,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":308,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":310,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":317,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":319,"name":320,"description":321,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":322},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",22,{"slug":324,"name":325,"description":326,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":330,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":336},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",21,{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":42,"image":42,"body":345,"postCount":236},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":347,"name":348,"description":42,"image":42,"body":349,"postCount":331},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":354,"postCount":313},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":356,"name":357,"description":358,"image":42,"body":359,"postCount":236},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":361,"name":362,"description":363,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":365,"name":366,"description":367,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":369,"name":370,"description":371,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":373,"name":374,"description":375,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",{"slug":192,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":380,"name":381,"description":382,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":384,"name":385,"description":386,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":388,"name":389,"description":390,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":392,"name":393,"description":394,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":395},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":397,"name":398,"description":399,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":402,"name":403,"description":404,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",3,{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":411,"name":412,"description":413,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":395},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":242},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":463,"name":464,"description":465,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":466},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",13,{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":474,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":476,"name":477,"description":478,"image":42,"body":479,"postCount":236},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":483,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":242},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":242},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":491,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":493,"name":494,"description":495,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":497,"name":498,"description":499,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":503,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":505,"name":506,"description":507,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":508},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",11,{"slug":510,"name":511,"description":512,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":514,"name":515,"description":516,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":518,"name":519,"description":520,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":522,"name":523,"description":524,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":526,"name":527,"description":528,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":530,"name":531,"description":532,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":534,"name":535,"description":536,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":538,"name":539,"description":540,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":542,"name":543,"description":544,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":546,"name":547,"description":548,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":550,"name":551,"description":552,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":554,"name":555,"description":556,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":558,"name":559,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":247},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":561,"name":562,"description":563,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":565,"name":566,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":571,"name":572,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":574,"name":575,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":577,"name":578,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":80,"name":580,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"Quality Control",{"slug":582,"name":583,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":585,"name":586,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":395},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":594,"name":595,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":597,"name":598,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":600,"name":601,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":405},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":603,"name":604,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology",{"slug":606,"name":607,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"trematodes","Trematodes",{"slug":609,"name":610,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"coccidian-parasites","Coccidian Parasites",{"slug":612,"name":613,"description":614,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"cell-structure","Cell Structure","\u003Cp>Articles related to Cell Structure. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":616,"name":617,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":204},"automation-in-microbiology","Automation in Microbiology",{"slug":50,"name":619,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"Laboratory Management"]