[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fz-ye2MrxoapUFmqSvp0LOozoIgk7X5WLECuzheTDgZU":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":258,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":321},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":80,"related":82,"comments":254},"ion-exchange-chromatography","Ion-Exchange Chromatography: Principle, Types and Applications","\u003Cp>Ion-exchange chromatography explained: how it separates molecules by charge, cation vs anion exchangers, the role of pH, elution, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-05","2026-08-18",false,"lab-equipment","If you have ever used a water softener, you have already used ion-exchange. Inside it, tiny charged beads grab the calcium and magnesium ions that make water \"hard\" and swap them for sodium ions. **Ion-exchange chromatography** uses exactly this idea to separate molecules, and it is one of the most powerful tools in biochemistry for purifying proteins. Instead of sorting molecules by size or how well they dissolve, it sorts them by their **electrical charge**. This article explains what it is, the principle behind it, its types, the role of pH, and where it is used.\n\n## What is ion-exchange chromatography?\n\n**Ion-exchange chromatography** is a technique that separates molecules according to their **net electrical charge**. The column is packed with a resin (the stationary phase) that carries fixed charged groups. Molecules in the sample that have the **opposite charge** to the resin stick to it, while molecules with the same charge or no charge flow straight through. The bound molecules are then released, one group at a time, by gradually changing the conditions.\n\nBecause charge can be finely controlled, ion-exchange is especially good at separating **proteins, amino acids, and nucleotides**, and it is a mainstay of protein purification. It is a type of column [chromatography](\u002Fchromatography-an-overview\u002F), closely related to [gel filtration](\u002Fgel-filtration-chromatography\u002F) as a protein-purification method.\n\n## Why ion-exchange chromatography matters\n\nIon-exchange is a **high-capacity, high-resolution** method: a small column can bind a large amount of protein and separate molecules that differ only slightly in charge. It is gentle enough to keep proteins active, and it is used at every scale, from a research bench purifying one enzyme to industrial water treatment. For anyone working with proteins and other charged biomolecules, it is one of the first tools they reach for.\n\n## Principle of ion-exchange chromatography\n\nThe rule is simple: **opposite charges attract.** The resin carries fixed charged groups, and the counter-ions loosely attached to them can be exchanged for other ions of the same charge, hence the name.\n\n1. **Binding:** the sample is loaded in a low-salt buffer. Molecules with the **opposite charge** to the resin bind to it; molecules with the same charge or no charge wash straight through.\n2. **Washing:** the column is washed to remove everything that did not bind.\n3. **Elution:** the bound molecules are released by **increasing the salt concentration** (or changing the pH). The added salt ions compete for the charged sites and displace the bound molecules, which come off in order of how tightly they were held (the least tightly bound first).\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fion-exchange-chromatography.png\" alt=\"Two-panel ion-exchange chromatography diagram showing a cation-exchange bead binding a positively charged protein while a negative protein washes through, then salt ions displacing the bound protein during elution.\" width=\"1019\" height=\"612\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>Cation exchange: the positively charged protein binds, then added salt displaces it during elution.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\nElution is often done as a **salt gradient**, gradually raising the salt so that different molecules come off at different points and separate cleanly.\n\n## Types of ion-exchange chromatography\n\nThere are two families, defined by the charge on the resin:\n\n| Type | Charge on the resin | What it binds | Example groups |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Cation exchanger** | Negative | Positively charged molecules (cations) | Sulfopropyl (SP, strong); carboxymethyl (CM, weak) |\n| **Anion exchanger** | Positive | Negatively charged molecules (anions) | Quaternary ammonium (Q, strong); diethylaminoethyl (DEAE, weak) |\n\nEach family also comes as **strong** or **weak**. This refers to whether the resin's charged group stays ionized across a **wide pH range** (strong) or only a **narrow one** (weak). It does **not** mean the binding is strong or weak.\n\n### The role of pH and the isoelectric point (pI)\n\nFor proteins, charge depends on pH. Every protein has an **isoelectric point (pI)**, the pH at which it has no net charge.\n\n- **Above its pI**, a protein is **negatively charged**, so it binds an **anion exchanger**.\n- **Below its pI**, a protein is **positively charged**, so it binds a **cation exchanger**.\n\nBy choosing the buffer pH, you control which proteins carry a charge and therefore which ones bind, which is what makes ion-exchange so selective.\n\n## Parts and materials\n\n- **Column:** holds the resin bed (often a ready-packed column in modern labs).\n- **Ion-exchange resin (stationary phase):** a matrix carrying fixed charged groups (cation or anion exchanger).\n- **Binding buffer:** a low-salt buffer at a chosen pH, used to load the sample.\n- **Elution buffer:** a buffer of increasing salt concentration (or changing pH) to release bound molecules.\n- **Fraction collector:** collects the separated molecules as they elute.\n\n## Procedure of ion-exchange chromatography (step by step)\n\n1. **Equilibrate.** Wash the column with the binding buffer so the resin is at the right pH and low salt.\n2. **Load the sample.** Apply the sample in the binding buffer. Molecules of opposite charge bind to the resin; the rest flow through.\n3. **Wash.** Rinse with binding buffer to remove unbound molecules.\n4. **Elute.** Pass an elution buffer with **increasing salt** (or changing pH) through the column. Bound molecules are displaced and come off in order of how tightly they were held.\n5. **Collect fractions.** Gather the eluted molecules as separate fractions.\n6. **Regenerate.** Wash the column with high salt and re-equilibrate it for reuse.\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n- **A cation exchanger has negative groups.** It is named for what it *binds* (cations), so it must carry the opposite (negative) charge. Likewise an anion exchanger carries positive groups.\n- **\"Strong\" and \"weak\" describe the pH range, not the grip.** A strong exchanger stays charged over a wide pH range; it does not bind more tightly than a weak one.\n- **Charge depends on pH through the pI.** The same protein can bind a cation exchanger at one pH and an anion exchanger at another, depending on whether the pH is below or above its pI.\n- **Molecules are released by adding salt, not by washing with more buffer.** Raising the salt lets counter-ions compete and displace the bound molecules.\n- **It separates by charge, not size.** This is the opposite basis to [gel filtration](\u002Fgel-filtration-chromatography\u002F), which sorts by molecular size.\n\n## How to remember\n\n- **\"Opposites attract.\"** The resin binds molecules of the opposite charge. A negative resin (cation exchanger) grabs positive molecules.\n- **\"Cation exchanger Catches Cations.\"** The name tells you what binds, so the resin itself must be negative.\n- **\"Raise the salt to set them free.\"** Increasing salt displaces the bound molecules and elutes them.\n\n## Applications of ion-exchange chromatography\n\n- **Protein and enzyme purification:** the biggest laboratory use, separating proteins by their charge differences.\n- **Water treatment:** water softening and deionization, swapping unwanted ions for harmless ones (the same idea as a home water softener).\n- **Amino acid analysis:** the classic automated amino acid analyzer separates amino acids by ion-exchange.\n- **Separating nucleotides and oligonucleotides:** purifying DNA, RNA, and their building blocks by charge.\n- **Pharmaceutical and food analysis:** separating charged drugs, organic acids, and additives.\n\n## Advantages of ion-exchange chromatography\n\nIon-exchange offers **high resolution** (it separates molecules differing only slightly in charge) and **high binding capacity** (a small column holds a lot of sample). It is **gentle**, so proteins keep their activity, the columns are **reusable**, and the conditions (pH and salt) are **easy to control**.\n\n## Limitations of ion-exchange chromatography\n\nThe sample usually must be in a **low-salt buffer** to bind, so a desalting step (often by [gel filtration](\u002Fgel-filtration-chromatography\u002F)) may be needed first. Separation depends on charge alone, so molecules with a **similar charge** are hard to separate, high salt or extreme pH can **affect delicate proteins**, and method development (choosing the resin, pH, and gradient) takes some trial and error.\n\n## Key exam points\n\n| Point | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Separation basis | Net electrical charge of the molecule |\n| Cation exchanger | Negative resin; binds positively charged molecules |\n| Anion exchanger | Positive resin; binds negatively charged molecules |\n| Strong vs weak | Refers to the pH range over which the group stays charged, not binding strength |\n| Role of pI | Above pI a protein is negative (binds anion exchanger); below pI it is positive (binds cation exchanger) |\n| Binding | Done in low-salt buffer; opposite-charge molecules stick |\n| Elution | By increasing salt concentration (or changing pH), often as a gradient |\n| Main uses | Protein purification, water softening\u002Fdeionization, amino acid analysis |\n| Main limitation | Sample needs low salt to bind; separates by charge only |\n\n**References**\n\n1. Cytiva (formerly GE Healthcare). *Ion Exchange Chromatography: Principles and Methods* (handbook).\n2. Wilson K, Walker J. *Principles and Techniques of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology*. 7th ed. Cambridge University Press; 2010.\n3. Cummins PM, Rochfort KD, O'Connor BF. Ion-exchange chromatography: basic principles and application. *Methods in Molecular Biology*. 2017;1485:209-223.\n4. Harris DC. *Quantitative Chemical Analysis*. 9th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2015.",[50,53,56,59,62,65,68,71,74,77],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>What is ion-exchange chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that separates molecules by their electrical charge. A charged resin holds onto molecules of the opposite charge, and they are later released by adding salt.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of ion-exchange chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Opposite charges attract. Molecules with a charge opposite to the resin bind to it, unbound molecules wash away, and the bound ones are then displaced by increasing the salt concentration or changing the pH.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a cation and an anion exchanger?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A cation exchanger has negatively charged groups and binds positively charged molecules (cations). An anion exchanger has positively charged groups and binds negatively charged molecules (anions).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>How are bound molecules eluted?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By raising the salt concentration (or changing the pH). The extra ions compete for the charged sites and push the bound molecules off, usually with the least tightly bound coming off first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>What is ion-exchange chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly purifying proteins and enzymes, plus water softening and deionization, amino acid analysis, and separating nucleotides.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>What is affinity chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that purifies one specific molecule by using a partner molecule (a ligand) that binds only the target. The target sticks to the column while everything else washes away, and then the target is released.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of affinity chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It uses a specific, reversible lock-and-key interaction. The target binds an immobilized ligand, unbound molecules are washed off, and the target is then released by competition or by changing the conditions.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":72,"answer":73},"\u003Cp>What is a ligand in affinity chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The ligand is the molecule attached to the column matrix that specifically binds the target, for example an antibody, an enzyme substrate, or a metal ion that binds a His-tag.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":75,"answer":76},"\u003Cp>How is the bound target eluted?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By adding a free molecule that competes for the binding site (such as imidazole for a His-tag), or by changing conditions such as lowering the pH.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":78,"answer":79},"\u003Cp>What is affinity chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Purifying recombinant (His-tagged) proteins, purifying antibodies with Protein A or G, isolating enzymes and glycoproteins, and removing or detecting specific molecules.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],"chromatography",[83,106,132,154,179,204,226,248],{"slug":84,"title":85,"description":86,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":87,"createdDate":88,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":89,"tags":105},"chromatography-an-overview","Chromatography: Definition, Principle, Types & History","\u003Cp>Chromatography explained: what it is, its basic principle of stationary and mobile phases, who discovered it, and the main types, with links to each technique.\u003C\u002Fp>","Ashma Shrestha","2022-05-15",[90,93,96,99,102],{"question":91,"answer":92},"\u003Cp>What is chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a way of separating the parts of a mixture by letting a moving liquid or gas carry them over a material that holds each part back by a different amount, so the parts spread out and separate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":94,"answer":95},"\u003Cp>Who discovered chromatography and what does the name mean?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The botanist Mikhail Tsvet discovered it around 1900 while separating plant pigments on a column. The name comes from the Greek words for \"color\" and \"writing,\" so it means \"color writing.\"\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":97,"answer":98},"\u003Cp>What are the main types of chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Paper, thin layer (TLC), column, gas (GC), high-performance liquid (HPLC), gel filtration (size-exclusion), ion-exchange, affinity, and immunochromatography (lateral flow).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":100,"answer":101},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between the stationary phase and the mobile phase?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The stationary phase stays fixed in place (a solid, or a liquid held on a solid). The mobile phase is the liquid or gas that moves through it and carries the sample. Separation happens because of how strongly each component is held by the stationary phase.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":103,"answer":104},"\u003Cp>What is chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Identifying what is in a mixture, measuring how much of each component is present, and purifying individual substances, in medicine, forensics, food testing, environmental science, and research.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":107,"title":108,"description":109,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":110,"createdDate":111,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":112,"tags":131},"gel-filtration-chromatography","Gel Filtration Chromatography: Principle, Steps & Uses","\u003Cp>Gel filtration (size-exclusion) chromatography explained: how it separates molecules by size, why large molecules elute first, the gels used, and applications.\u003C\u002Fp>","Sushmita Baniya","2022-05-19",[113,116,119,122,125,128],{"question":114,"answer":115},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a way to separate molecules by size by passing them through a column of porous gel beads. Large molecules cannot enter the beads and come out first, while small molecules get delayed inside the beads and come out last.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":117,"answer":118},"\u003Cp>What elutes first in gel filtration chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The largest molecules elute first, because they are excluded from the pores of the beads and take the shortest path through the column.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":120,"answer":121},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration chromatography also known as?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), molecular sieve chromatography, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Gel permeation usually refers to separating polymers in organic solvents, while gel filtration usually refers to biological molecules in water.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":123,"answer":124},"\u003Cp>Which gels are used in gel filtration?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Common ones are Sephadex (cross-linked dextran), Sepharose (agarose), and Bio-Gel (polyacrylamide). The pore size of the gel decides the range of molecular sizes it can separate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":126,"answer":127},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly for desalting or exchanging the buffer of a protein sample, for separating proteins by size, and for estimating the molecular weight of an unknown protein.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":129,"answer":130},"\u003Cp>Why is it called \"filtration\" if nothing is filtered out?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The name is historical. No molecule is actually removed; all of them pass through the column, but they emerge at different times according to size.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":133,"title":134,"description":135,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":136,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":137,"tags":153},"paper-chromatography","Paper Chromatography: Principle, Procedure, Types and Uses","\u003Cp>Paper chromatography explained: its partition principle and Rf value, the types (ascending, descending, radial), step-by-step procedure, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-10",[138,141,144,147,150],{"question":139,"answer":140},"\u003Cp>What is paper chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that separates the parts of a mixture by letting a solvent carry them along a strip of paper. Each part travels a different distance, so a single spot separates into several spots you can compare.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":142,"answer":143},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of paper chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It works by partition. The paper holds a thin layer of water (the stationary phase), and the moving solvent (the mobile phase) carries each component. Components that dissolve better in the solvent travel further, and those attracted to the water stay behind.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":145,"answer":146},"\u003Cp>Is paper chromatography adsorption or partition?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is mainly \u003Cstrong>partition\u003C\u002Fstrong>, because the sample divides between the water held in the paper and the moving solvent. This is a common exam point.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":148,"answer":149},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between paper chromatography and TLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Paper chromatography uses water held in cellulose paper as the stationary phase, while TLC uses a thin layer of an adsorbent (often silica) on a plate. TLC is faster, gives sharper spots, and is more sensitive.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":151,"answer":152},"\u003Cp>What is paper chromatography used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Separating plant pigments, amino acids, sugars, inks, and dyes, and for teaching how chromatography and the Rf value work.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":155,"title":156,"description":157,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":110,"createdDate":158,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":159,"tags":178},"hplc-high-performance-liquid-chromatography","High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Principle, Parts, Uses","\u003Cp>High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) explained: its principle, how it works under high pressure, the parts, normal vs reverse phase, and its uses.\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-07-01",[160,163,166,169,172,175],{"question":161,"answer":162},"\u003Cp>What is HPLC in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a machine that separates the parts of a liquid mixture by pumping it under high pressure through a column packed with fine particles. Each part comes out at a different time, and a detector records how much of each is present.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":164,"answer":165},"\u003Cp>How does HPLC work?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A pump pushes a liquid mobile phase through the column at high pressure, a small sample is injected into the stream, the components separate as they move through the column, and a detector measures each one as it leaves, producing a chromatogram of peaks.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":167,"answer":168},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between normal-phase and reverse-phase HPLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In normal-phase HPLC the column is polar and the mobile phase is non-polar. In reverse-phase HPLC (the more common type) the column is non-polar and the mobile phase is polar, so polar compounds elute first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":170,"answer":171},"\u003Cp>What are the main parts of an HPLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Solvent reservoirs, a pump, a degasser, an injector (autosampler), the column, a detector, and a data system.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":173,"answer":174},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between isocratic and gradient elution?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In isocratic elution the mobile-phase composition stays constant throughout the run. In gradient elution it changes during the run, which helps separate complex mixtures.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":176,"answer":177},"\u003Cp>Who developed HPLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It grew out of classical liquid column chromatography in the late 1960s. Csaba Horvath built one of the first modern instruments and coined the term \"high-performance liquid chromatography,\" and J. J. Kirkland and Josef Huber were among the other pioneers of the technique.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":180,"title":181,"description":182,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":110,"createdDate":183,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":184,"tags":203},"gas-chromatography-gc-principle-parts-and-uses","Gas Chromatography (GC): Principle, Parts and Uses","\u003Cp>Gas chromatography (GC) explained: its principle and retention time, instrumentation and parts, detector types, GSC vs GLC, and applications, with exam notes.\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-06-15",[185,188,191,194,197,200],{"question":186,"answer":187},"\u003Cp>What is gas chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a method that separates a mixture of vapors by carrying them through a long column with a gas. Each component travels at its own speed and comes out separately, and a detector records each one as a peak.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":189,"answer":190},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of gas chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Components separate because each one interacts with the stationary phase to a different degree. More volatile compounds that stick less to the column move faster and come out first; less volatile compounds that stick more come out later.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":192,"answer":193},"\u003Cp>What elutes first in gas chromatography\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The most volatile compound, meaning the one with the lowest boiling point and the weakest attraction to the stationary phase, has the shortest retention time and leaves the column first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":195,"answer":196},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between GSC and GLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In gas-solid chromatography (GSC) the stationary phase is a solid and separation is by adsorption. In gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) the stationary phase is a liquid film and separation is by partition. GLC is far more common.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":198,"answer":199},"\u003Cp>Which detector is used in gas chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Several are used depending on the job: the FID for organic compounds, the TCD as a universal detector, the ECD for halogen-containing compounds like pesticides, and the mass spectrometer (GC-MS) for identifying unknowns.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":201,"answer":202},"\u003Cp>Why must the carrier gas be inert?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because its only job is to carry the sample through the column. An unreactive gas takes no part in the separation and does not change the sample.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":205,"title":206,"description":207,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":110,"createdDate":208,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":209,"tags":225},"thin-layer-chromatography","Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC): Principle, Procedure, and Applications","\u003Cp>Thin layer chromatography (TLC) explained simply: its principle and Rf value, step-by-step procedure, types, adsorbents, and applications, with exam notes.\u003C\u002Fp>","2022-05-17",[210,213,216,219,222],{"question":211,"answer":212},"\u003Cp>What is thin layer chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a fast way to separate the parts of a mixture by letting a solvent carry them up a coated plate. Each part travels a different distance, so a single sample spot separates into several spots you can compare.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":214,"answer":215},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of TLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Components separate because each one sticks to the solid coating (stationary phase) and dissolves in the moving solvent (mobile phase) to a different degree. Those that prefer the solvent travel further; those that stick to the coating stay low.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":217,"answer":218},"\u003Cp>What is the Rf value and why is it always less than 1?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The Rf value is the distance a compound travels divided by the distance the solvent front travels. Because the solvent carries the compound, the compound can never move further than the solvent, so the Rf is always between 0 and 1.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":220,"answer":221},"\u003Cp>What is TLC used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Checking whether a substance is pure, monitoring whether a chemical reaction is finished, identifying unknown compounds by their Rf value, and separating things like amino acids, sugars, drugs, and plant pigments.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":223,"answer":224},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between TLC and paper chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both separate mixtures, but TLC uses a thin layer of adsorbent on a rigid plate, while paper chromatography uses a sheet of paper. TLC is faster, gives sharper spots, is more sensitive, and can tolerate corrosive detection reagents.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":227,"title":228,"description":229,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":230,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":231,"tags":247},"column-chromatography","Column Chromatography: Principle, Procedure and Applications","\u003Cp>Column chromatography explained: its adsorption principle, how the packed column separates a mixture, the step-by-step procedure, types, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-04",[232,235,238,241,244],{"question":233,"answer":234},"\u003Cp>What is column chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a way to separate and purify the parts of a mixture by passing it down through a tube packed with a solid. Each part travels at a different speed and drips out at a different time, so it can be collected separately.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":236,"answer":237},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of column chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It works mainly by adsorption. Components that stick strongly to the solid packing move slowly and come out later, while components that prefer the solvent move quickly and come out first.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":239,"answer":240},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between column chromatography and paper or TLC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Column chromatography is preparative: it lets you collect the purified components in useful amounts. Paper chromatography and TLC are mainly analytical, telling you what is present rather than letting you recover much material.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":242,"answer":243},"\u003Cp>What comes out of the column first?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The component that is least strongly held by the packing. With a polar adsorbent such as silica, the least polar component elutes first and the most polar elutes last.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":245,"answer":246},"\u003Cp>Is HPLC a type of column chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. HPLC is column chromatography run with very fine packing and a high-pressure pump, which makes it far faster and sharper.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":249,"title":250,"description":251,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":230,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":252,"tags":253},"affinity-chromatography","Affinity Chromatography: Principle, Procedure & Applications","\u003Cp>Affinity chromatography explained: how it purifies a target by specific binding to a ligand, the types (His-tag, antibody), elution, and its applications.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[81],{"enabled":255,"threads":256,"total":257},true,[],0,[259,265,271,277,283,288,294,299,305,308,315],{"slug":260,"name":43,"description":261,"image":262,"body":263,"postCount":264},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":266,"name":87,"description":267,"image":268,"body":269,"postCount":270},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":272,"name":110,"description":273,"image":274,"body":275,"postCount":276},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":278,"name":279,"description":273,"image":280,"body":281,"postCount":282},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":273,"image":42,"body":286,"postCount":287},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":289,"name":290,"description":291,"image":42,"body":292,"postCount":293},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":295,"name":296,"description":297,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":300,"name":301,"description":273,"image":302,"body":303,"postCount":304},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":297,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":309,"name":310,"description":311,"image":312,"body":313,"postCount":314},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":319,"body":320,"postCount":298},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[322,329,335,340,345,350,354,358,362,367,371,376,380,385,390,394,398,401,406,411,415,419,423,428,432,436,440,444,449,454,458,462,466,470,474,478,482,486,490,494,498,502,506,510,514,518,522,526,531,535,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,571,575,579,583,587,591,595,599,603,607,610,614],{"slug":323,"name":324,"description":325,"image":326,"body":327,"postCount":328},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":330,"name":331,"description":332,"image":42,"body":333,"postCount":334},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":341,"name":342,"description":343,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":346,"name":347,"description":348,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":359,"name":360,"description":361,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":370,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":374,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":375},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":375},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":42,"image":42,"body":397,"postCount":287},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":81,"name":399,"description":42,"image":42,"body":400,"postCount":384},"Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":402,"name":403,"description":404,"image":42,"body":405,"postCount":366},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":410,"postCount":287},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":437,"name":438,"description":439,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":441,"name":442,"description":443,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":448},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":450,"name":451,"description":452,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":463,"name":464,"description":465,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":467,"name":468,"description":469,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":375},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":471,"name":472,"description":473,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":475,"name":476,"description":477,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":479,"name":480,"description":481,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":483,"name":484,"description":485,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":448},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":487,"name":488,"description":489,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":491,"name":492,"description":493,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":497,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":499,"name":500,"description":501,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":293},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":503,"name":504,"description":505,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":509},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":511,"name":512,"description":513,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":515,"name":516,"description":517,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":519,"name":520,"description":521,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":523,"name":524,"description":525,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":527,"name":528,"description":529,"image":42,"body":530,"postCount":287},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":532,"name":533,"description":534,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":550,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":384},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":572,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":509},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":582,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":584,"name":585,"description":586,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":453},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":590,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":592,"name":593,"description":594,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":596,"name":597,"description":598,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":600,"name":601,"description":602,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":366},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":604,"name":605,"description":606,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":298},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":613,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":615,"name":616,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":509},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]