[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$ffkdnC0XSfmqS3FbDJcce84pBSSiWVsPJEd-ss7CE3OM":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":254,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":318},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":71,"related":73,"comments":250},"histoplasma-capsulatum-properties-diseases-laboratory-diagnosis","Histoplasma capsulatum: Morphology, Pathogenesis, and Lab Diagnosis","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Histoplasma capsulatum\u003C\u002Fem> is a dimorphic fungus identified by its tuberculate macroconidia and by small intracellular yeast in macrophages. Learn its morphology, why the name is a misnomer, pathogenesis, disease forms, and lab diagnosis.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2016-06-24","2026-08-17",false,"mycology","A spelunker returns from exploring a bat-filled cave with fever, cough, and fatigue. Weeks later a bone marrow smear shows the answer: tiny oval yeast cells packed inside macrophages. In culture, the mold grows large, round spores studded with finger-like knobs, the tuberculate macroconidia. Those two pictures, small yeast hiding inside cells and knobby macroconidia in culture, are the fingerprints of *Histoplasma capsulatum*, and reading them is what names the disease.\n\n*Histoplasma capsulatum* is a [thermally dimorphic fungus](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fnotable-dimorphic-fungi-and-their-properties\u002F) of major medical importance. It grows as a mold at 25°C in the environment and converts to a small budding yeast at 37°C in tissue and in culture. Its defining feature is that it is an intracellular pathogen: the yeast survives and multiplies inside macrophages, the very cells meant to kill it. It is associated with soil enriched by bird and bat droppings.\n\nDespite its name, *Histoplasma capsulatum* has no capsule. The species name is a historical misnomer, dating from early observations where a clear zone around the yeast was mistaken for a capsule. This is a frequent exam question: *Histoplasma capsulatum* is not encapsulated.\n\nPeople who visit caves (researchers, spelunkers), farmers, and people who work in old buildings or any renovation project are likely to acquire this disease. Contaminated soil can be infectious for many years.\n\n> Tuberculate macroconidium (with typical thick walls and radial, finger like projections) is a diagnostic structure of Histoplasma capsulatum.\n\n## Morphology and identifying structures\n\n*Histoplasma capsulatum* looks completely different in its two forms, and each has a diagnostic feature.\n\n1. **In tissue (yeast form, 37°C):** small, oval, narrow-based budding yeast, 2 to 4 μm across, found inside macrophages and other mononuclear cells. The small size and intracellular location are the clues.\n2. **In the environment and culture (mold form, 25°C):** septate hyphae bearing two kinds of spores:\n   - **Tuberculate macroconidia:** large (8 to 15 μm), round, thick-walled spores covered with distinctive finger-like or knobby surface projections (tubercles). This is the diagnostic structure of *Histoplasma capsulatum*. When you see a large, knobby, thick-walled macroconidium from a slow-growing mold in the right clinical setting, think *Histoplasma*.\n   - **Microconidia**: small (2 to 5 μm), smooth-walled, round to pear-shaped spores. These are clinically important because they are the infectious particles. Their small size is ideal for reaching the alveoli when inhaled.\n\n![Histoplasma capsulatum in bone marrow biopsy C.  - Histoplasma capsulatumin bone marrow biopsyC.H & E stain 1000 D.PAS Stain 1000 Source: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov](\u002Fblogs\u002FHistoplasma-capsulatum-in-bone-marrow-biopsy.jpg)Figure: *Histoplasma capsulatum* in bone marrow biopsy C.H & E stain 1000 D.PAS Stain 1000 Source: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\n\n## Habitat, transmission, and disease names\n\n*Histoplasma capsulatum* is found throughout the world. In USA, It is endemic in Midwestern and Central USA, along the Mississippi and Ohio river valley.\n\n*Histoplasma capsulatum* causes histoplasmosis, a systemic mycosis. The disease has several well-known names worth remembering: Darling's disease (after the physician who first described it), and, because it is often caught in caves, cave disease and spelunker's disease.\n\nPeople acquire it by inhaling microconidia when soil enriched with bird or bat droppings is disturbed, for example in caves, old buildings, or during demolition and renovation. Contaminated soil can remain infectious for years.\n\nMost infections in healthy people are mild or symptomless, and the person may never know they were infected. Disease is more severe in the immunocompromised.\n\n## Clinical forms of histoplasmosis\n\nHistoplasmosis ranges from a silent infection to life-threatening disease, depending on how many spores are inhaled and how strong the person's cell-mediated immunity is.\n\n1. **Asymptomatic or mild infection**. In most healthy people, the infection is contained and causes few or no symptoms. It may only show up later as calcified spots in the lungs.\n2. **Acute pulmonary histoplasmosis.** A flu-like illness with fever, cough, and chest pain that resembles pneumonia. Heavy exposure, such as in a cave, can cause severe pneumonia and even acute respiratory distress syndrome.\n3. **Chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis.** A slowly progressive lung disease that resembles tuberculosis, with cough, weight loss, and cavitary lung changes. It is more common in people with underlying lung disease such as emphysema.\n4. **Disseminated histoplasmosis.** Spread of the yeast throughout the body inside macrophages, affecting the bone marrow, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and other organs. This form is most common and most dangerous in people with impaired cell-mediated immunity, such as those with advanced HIV, and can be rapidly fatal without treatment.\n\n## Pathogenesis\n\n**Virulence factors**\n\n*Histoplasma capsulatum* is a facultative intracellular pathogen, and its virulence comes from surviving inside the very cells meant to destroy it.\n\nThermal dimorphism. What: the switch from inhaled mold conidia to the tissue yeast form at body temperature. Why: the yeast form is the form that survives inside macrophages, so this conversion is the essential first step in causing disease.\n\nSurvival inside macrophages. What: the ability to live and multiply within the macrophage after being engulfed. Why: this is the key virulence mechanism. The yeast modulates the pH inside the phagolysosome and resists killing, turning the macrophage from a defense into a protected niche and a vehicle for spread.\n\nMicroconidia of the right size. What: small spores (2 to 5 μm). Why: this size is ideal for reaching and depositing in the alveoli when inhaled, which is where infection begins.\n\n**Pathogenesis: putting it together**\n\nThe sequence starts with inhalation of microconidia, which reach the alveoli (attach and establish). There they convert to the yeast form and are engulfed by macrophages, but instead of being killed, the yeast survives inside them by controlling the phagolysosome environment (resist defenses). The yeast multiplies within macrophages, and destruction of infected macrophages spreads the organism (damage). Carried inside macrophages, the yeast then disseminates through the lymphatics and blood to the bone marrow, liver, spleen, and other organs (spread).\n\nCell-mediated immunity is the decisive defense. Once it develops, activated macrophages can finally kill the yeast and the infection is contained. This is why disease is mild in healthy people but severe and disseminated in those with weak cell-mediated immunity.\n\n## Laboratory Diagnosis\n\n![H capsulatum in Giemsa stained preparation  - H. capsulatumin Giemsa stained preparation](\u002Fblogs\u002FH-capsulatum-in-Giemsa-stained-preparation-300x185.jpg)Figure: *H. capsulatum* in Giemsa stained preparation\n\n**Sample:** Bone marrow, peripheral blood, and sputum (organisms are less likely to be detected in the direct microscopic examination of respiratory tract specimens).\n\n**Methods:**\n\n**Microscopy and Staining:** In the Wright or [Giemsa stained](\u002Fgiemsa-stain-principle-procedure-and-results\u002F) specimens, *Histoplasma capsulatum* is found **intracellularly** within the cytoplasm of endothelial or mononuclear cells.\n\n*H. capsulatum* yeasts: small round or oval cells, 2 to 5 μm, seen inside mononuclear cells. Two look-alikes must be distinguished. Inside macrophages, they resemble the amastigotes of *Leishmania donovani*, but *Leishmania* amastigotes have a kinetoplast (a small rod-shaped structure) that *Histoplasma* lacks. In culture, the tuberculate macroconidia resemble those of some harmless soil molds such as *Sepedonium*, so identification is confirmed by converting the mold to the yeast form, by a DNA probe, or by MALDI-TOF, not by the macroconidia alone.\n\n![Histoplasma capsulatum culture in SDA Source:http:\u002F\u002Fwww.mycology.adelaide.edu.au\u002F - Histoplasma capsulatumculture inSDASource: http:\u002F\u002Fwww.mycology.adelaide.edu.au\u002F](\u002Fblogs\u002FCulture-of-Histoplasma-capsulatum-in-SDA-300x178.jpg)Figure: *Histoplasma capsulatum* culture in SDA \\\nSource: http:\u002F\u002Fwww.mycology.adelaide.edu.au\u002F\n\n- **Culture**: Specimen must be cultured as soon as possible to ensure optimal recovery of *H. capsulatum* and other dimorphic fungi. It grows well in ordinary [fungal culture media](\u002Fcommon-fungal-culture-media-uses\u002F) but it may be overgrown by bacteria or rapidly growing molds. It is a slow-growing mold at 25°C to 30°C and commonly requires 2-4 weeks or more for colonies to appear. The organism may, however, be recovered within 5 days or less if many yeast cells are present in the clinical specimen.\n- **Colony characteristics:** White, fluffy mold that turns brown to buff with age. The organism may also produce wrinkle, moist, heaped, yeast-like colonies that are soft and creamy when grown at 37°C in certain media. Culture of *H. capsulatum* must be handled with extreme caution in a [Class II Biological Safety Cabinet (BSCII).](\u002Fbiological-safety-cabinet-bsc-types-working-mechanism\u002F)\n\n**Antigen and antibody testing**\n\nThe *Histoplasma* urine and serum antigen test is useful for diagnosing disseminated and acute disease, especially in immunocompromised patients, though it can cross-react with other dimorphic fungal infections. Antibody tests (complement fixation and immunodiffusion) are helpful in some forms but are less useful in the immunocompromised, who may not mount a strong antibody response. A histoplasmin skin test exists but is used for epidemiology, not diagnosis.\n\n## **Treatment**\n\nTreatment depends on severity and immune status, and this article gives drug-of-choice and class-level guidance only.\n\n1. Mild acute pulmonary histoplasmosis in a healthy person often needs no antifungal treatment, because it resolves on its own. Treatment is considered if symptoms persist beyond about a month.\n2. Mild to moderate disease requiring treatment: an azole, itraconazole, is the drug of choice.\n3. Severe or disseminated disease, and immunocompromised patients: a polyene, liposomal amphotericin B, is used first, usually followed by itraconazole as step-down therapy.\n\nActual regimens, doses, and durations are decided by the treating clinician.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Tuberculate macroconidia = knobby ball = Histoplasma.** The large, thick-walled, finger-projection spore is the diagnostic structure. Picture a spiky ball.\n\n**Small yeast hiding inside cells.** In tissue, *Histoplasma* is small (2 to 4 μm) and lives inside macrophages. Small and intracellular is the tissue clue.\n\n**Capsulatum has no capsule.** The name is a misnomer. It is not encapsulated.\n\n**Caves and droppings.** Bird and bat droppings, caves, spelunkers. Darling's disease, cave disease, spelunker's disease.\n\n**Micro infects, macro identifies.** The small microconidia are the infectious particles that reach the alveoli. The large tuberculate macroconidia are what you identify it by in culture.\n\n**Itraconazole mild, amphotericin severe.** Same rule as the other dimorphic fungi.\n\n## Key exam facts\n\n| Item | Fact |\n| --- | --- |\n| Organism | *Histoplasma capsulatum*, a thermally dimorphic fungus |\n| Disease | Histoplasmosis (Darling's disease, cave\u002Fspelunker's disease) |\n| Tissue form | Small (2 to 4 μm) oval, narrow-based budding yeast, inside macrophages |\n| Diagnostic mold structure | Tuberculate macroconidia (large, thick-walled, knobby) |\n| Infectious particle | Microconidia (small, 2 to 5 μm) |\n| Capsule | None (the name is a misnomer) |\n| Key virulence mechanism | Survival and multiplication inside macrophages |\n| Route | Inhalation of microconidia |\n| Sources | Bird and bat droppings, caves, soil |\n| Endemic area | Ohio and Mississippi River valleys |\n| Tissue look-alike | *Leishmania donovani* amastigotes (which have a kinetoplast) |\n| Main defense | Cell-mediated immunity |\n| Treatment | Itraconazole (mild-moderate); liposomal amphotericin B (severe\u002Fdisseminated) |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"*Histoplasma capsulatum* has a capsule.\"** No. The name is a misnomer. It has no capsule. A clear zone once mistaken for a capsule gave it the name.\n\n**\"The macroconidia are the infectious particles.\"** No. The small microconidia are inhaled and cause infection. The large tuberculate macroconidia are the structure used to identify the mold in culture.\n\n**\"Intracellular yeast in a macrophage must be Histoplasma.\"** Not necessarily. *Leishmania donovani* amastigotes also sit inside mononuclear cells and look similar. *Leishmania* has a kinetoplast; *Histoplasma* does not.\n\n**\"Tuberculate macroconidia confirm Histoplasma by themselves.\"** No. Harmless soil molds such as *Sepedonium* produce similar macroconidia. Confirmation needs conversion to the yeast form, a DNA probe, or MALDI-TOF.\n\n**\"Everyone infected gets sick.\"** No. Most healthy people have mild or silent infection. Severe and disseminated disease occurs mainly in those with weak cell-mediated immunity.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Mittal, J., Ponce, M. G., Gendlina, I., and Nosanchuk, J. D. (2019). *Histoplasma capsulatum*: mechanisms for pathogenesis. *Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology*, 422, 157–191.\n2. Woods, J. P. (2002). *Histoplasma capsulatum* molecular genetics, pathogenesis, and responsiveness to its environment. *Fungal Genetics and Biology*, 35(2), 81–97.\n3. Tille, P. M. (2022). *Bailey and Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology* (15th ed.). Elsevier.",[50,53,56,59,62,65,68],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>What is the diagnostic structure of \u003Cem>Histoplasma capsulatum\u003C\u002Fem>?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The tuberculate macroconidium: a large (8 to 15 μm), thick-walled, round spore covered with distinctive finger-like or knobby surface projections, seen in the mold form.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>What does \u003Cem>Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> look like in tissue?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Small (2 to 4 μm), oval, narrow-based budding yeast cells found inside macrophages and other mononuclear cells.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between microconidia and macroconidia in \u003Cem>Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem>?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Microconidia are small (2 to 5 μm) and are the infectious particles that are inhaled. Macroconidia are large and tuberculate (knobby) and are used to identify the mold in culture.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>What are the other names for histoplasmosis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Darling's disease, cave disease, and spelunker's disease.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>How does \u003Cem>Histoplasma \u003C\u002Fem>cause disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Inhaled microconidia reach the lungs and convert to yeast, which survive and multiply inside macrophages. Carried inside these cells, the yeast can spread to the bone marrow, liver, spleen, and other organs, especially when cell-mediated immunity is weak.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>How is histoplasmosis treated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mild disease in healthy people often needs no treatment. Moderate disease is treated with itraconazole, and severe or disseminated disease with liposomal amphotericin B, usually followed by itraconazole.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> distinguished from \u003Cem>Leishmania\u003C\u002Fem> in tissue?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both are small and intracellular, but \u003Cem>Leishmania donovani\u003C\u002Fem> amastigotes have a kinetoplast, a small rod-shaped structure, which \u003Cem>Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> yeast cells lack.\u003C\u002Fp>",[72],"dimorphic-fungi",[74,96,130,164,195,223],{"slug":75,"title":76,"description":77,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":78,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":79,"tags":95},"notable-dimorphic-fungi-and-their-properties","Dimorphic Fungi: Disease, Properties","\u003Cp>Dimorphic fungi: \u003Cem>Histoplasma, Blastomyces, Coccidioides, Paracoccidioides, Sporothrix, Talaromyces\u003C\u002Fem>. Mold-to-yeast conversion, mnemonics, geographic distribution, and clinical findings. Complete teaching guide.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-05-29",[80,83,86,89,92],{"question":81,"answer":82},"Why do dimorphic fungi change shape based on temperature?","\u003Cp>Thermal dimorphism is a virulence adaptation. Mold form (25-30°C) optimises environmental spore dispersal. Yeast form (35-37°C, body temp) is smaller, survives within macrophages, and resists immune clearance better, a deliberate survival strategy.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":84,"answer":85},"Why must dimorphic fungal cultures be handled in a biosafety cabinet?","\u003Cp>The mold form's airborne conidia are the infectious form for humans. Examining cultures on an open bench risks aerosolising conidia and causing laboratory-acquired infection..\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":87,"answer":88},"Which dimorphic fungi do NOT follow the typical mold-to-yeast pattern?","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Coccidioides immitis\u003C\u002Fem> forms a spherule (20-200 μm, filled with endospores) instead of a true yeast. \u003Cem>Talaromyces marneffei\u003C\u002Fem> divides by fission (central septum) rather than budding. Both are common exam traps precisely because they break the general pattern.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":90,"answer":91},"Why is geographic\u002Ftravel history important when dimorphic fungal infection is suspected?","\u003Cp>Each organism has highly specific environmental niches: \u003Cem>Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> (Ohio\u002FMississippi valleys, bird\u002Fbat droppings), \u003Cem>Coccidioides \u003C\u002Fem>(SW USA arid soil), \u003Cem>Blastomyces\u003C\u002Fem> (Great Lakes\u002FOhio region), \u003Cem>Paracoccidioides\u003C\u002Fem> (rural Latin America), \u003Cem>Talaromyces\u003C\u002Fem> (Southeast Asia). Travel\u002Foccupational history dramatically narrows the differential before any test.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":93,"answer":94},"\u003Cp>Is \u003Cem>Sporothrix schenckii \u003C\u002Fem>a systemic or subcutaneous pathogen?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Primarily subcutaneous (sporotrichosis). Acquired by traumatic inoculation (rose thorns, splinters, so called 'rose gardener's disease'), typically remains localized with lymphocutaneous spread. Systemic dissemination is rare, occurring almost exclusively in severe immunocompromise.\u003C\u002Fp>",[72],{"slug":97,"title":98,"description":99,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":100,"createdDate":101,"lastUpdatedDate":102,"draft":46,"category":103,"image":42,"faq":104,"tags":129},"giemsa-stain-principle-procedure-and-results","Giemsa Stain: Principle, Procedure, Results","Complete Giemsa staining guide; stock and working solution preparation, pH 7.2 buffer chemistry, thick\u002Fthin smear procedure, organism-specific results, and a troubleshooting table for common staining problems.","Nisha Rijal","2019-07-13","2026-08-22","staining-techniques",[105,108,111,114,117,120,123,126],{"question":106,"answer":107},"Why is Giemsa preferred over Wright stain for malaria?","\u003Cp>WHO-recommended: superior Schüffner's dot and Maurer's cleft demonstration for species ID. Better thick smear performance, 20x concentration for low-density parasitemia detection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":109,"answer":110},"What is the difference between thick and thin blood smears?","\u003Cp>Thick: 20x concentration, high sensitivity, RBCs lysed, harder species ID. Thin: intact RBCs, clear morphology for species ID. Always prepare both: thick for detection, thin for identification.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":112,"answer":113},"Why must thick smears never be fixed with methanol?","Methanol fixes RBC membranes, preventing essential lysis. Thick smears must lyse during staining to reveal parasites. Only thin smears require methanol fixation.",{"question":115,"answer":116},"What is the significance of Schüffner's dots vs Maurer's clefts?","\u003Cp>Schüffner's dots (fine, even, pink, whole RBC) = \u003Cem>P. vivax\u003C\u002Fem> or \u003Cem>P. ovale,\u003C\u002Fem> NOT \u003Cem>P. falciparum. \u003C\u002Fem>Maurer's clefts (coarser, fewer, irregular) = \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":118,"answer":119},"\u003Cp>How do you differentiate \u003Cem>Leishmania\u003C\u002Fem> from\u003Cem> Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> on Giemsa?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Leishmania \u003C\u002Fem>has a kinetoplast: small rod adjacent to nucleus. \u003Cem>Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> lacks kinetoplast; may show narrow-based budding and pseudocapsule.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":121,"answer":122},"\u003Cp>What is the safety pin appearance of \u003Cem>Yersinia pestis\u003C\u002Fem>?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Bipolar staining: dark blue poles, pale centre = closed safety pin. Due to polyphosphate granules at cell poles. Seen in bubonic plague.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":124,"answer":125},"Why does Giemsa stain nucleus purple and cytoplasm blue?","Nuclei (acidic DNA\u002FRNA) attract basic azure dyes = purple. Cytoplasm (basic proteins) attracts acidic eosin = pink\u002Fblue. Granule staining depends on own chemistry.",{"question":127,"answer":128},"How long is Giemsa stock stable?","~2 years in dark amber glass at room temperature. Enemies: water contamination (irreversible) and light. Never return unused stain to stock. Label with date, batch, preparer, expiry.",[],{"slug":131,"title":132,"description":133,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":134,"lastUpdatedDate":135,"draft":46,"category":136,"image":42,"faq":137,"tags":162},"common-fungal-culture-media-uses","Common Fungal Culture Media and Their Uses in Clinical Mycology","A complete guide to fungal culture media — non-selective, selective, and differential media used in clinical mycology, with incubation temperatures, specimen types, cycloheximide sensitivity chart, and links to individual media articles.","2014-01-26","2026-07-18","culture-media",[138,141,144,147,150,153,156,159],{"question":139,"answer":140},"Why must cycloheximide-containing media never be used alone?","Cycloheximide inhibits Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and some Candida species. Always pair Mycosel or DTM with a cycloheximide-free medium.",{"question":142,"answer":143},"What is the difference between SDA and BHI for fungal isolation?","SDA (pH 5.6, high glucose): dermatophytes and subculture. BHI: richer, supports both mold and yeast phases of fastidious dimorphic fungi (Histoplasma, Blastomyces, Coccidioides) from primary specimens.",{"question":145,"answer":146},"How do you identify Candida species on CHROMagar?","C. albicans = green; C. tropicalis = blue-grey; C. krusei = pink flat spreading; C. glabrata = pink-mauve small. Different colored colonies immediately reveal mixed Candida infections.",{"question":148,"answer":149},"Why is Niger seed agar specific for Cryptococcus?","Cryptococcus produces laccase that oxidizes caffeic compounds to melanin = brown colonies. No other common clinical yeast produces laccase. Definitive Cryptococcus identification test.",{"question":151,"answer":152},"Why do fungi require longer incubation?","Fungi grow much slower — 1-4 weeks vs 18-48 hours for bacteria. Dimorphic fungi may take 2-4 weeks. Hold cultures minimum 4 weeks before reporting negative.",{"question":154,"answer":155},"What are the limitations of DTM?","False positives occur after 14 days as saprophytes eventually turn medium red. Positive = red color within 10-14 days. DTM is presumptive only — confirm by microscopy.",{"question":157,"answer":158},"What is the purpose of Tween 80 in cornmeal agar?","Reduces surface tension to enhance chlamydospore, pseudohyphae, and hyphae formation. C. albicans and C. dubliniensis produce terminal chlamydospores not seen in other Candida species.",{"question":160,"answer":161},"Which media for CSF with suspected Cryptococcus meningitis?","Niger seed agar + BHI or SABHI (non-selective). Never use cycloheximide media — Cryptococcus is sensitive. Perform India ink preparation in parallel.",[163],"fungal-culture-media",{"slug":165,"title":166,"description":167,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":100,"createdDate":168,"lastUpdatedDate":169,"draft":46,"category":170,"image":42,"faq":171,"tags":193},"biological-safety-cabinet-bsc-types-working-mechanism","Biological Safety Cabinet Classes I, II, and III: Which Class for Which Organism","How Class I, II, and III biosafety cabinets differ in airflow and what each actually protects, which class is required at each biosafety level, the four Class II types explained, and why a laminar airflow cabinet must never be used for infectious work.","2019-12-05","2026-07-23","bacteriology",[172,175,178,181,184,187,190],{"question":173,"answer":174},"When do I need a biosafety cabinet, and when is open-bench work okay?","BSL1 work does not require a cabinet; open-bench work with proper handwashing and PPE is acceptable. BSL2 work requires a Class II cabinet for aerosol-generating procedures; routine non-aerosol work can be done on the open bench. BSL3 and BSL4 work require a cabinet (Class II or III depending on the organism). The biosafety level of your laboratory and the risk group of the organism determine what you need.",{"question":176,"answer":177},"What is the difference between Class I, Class II, and Class III cabinets?","Class I protects the worker and environment but not the product (room air flows over the work). Class II protects the worker, environment, and product (inward airflow, downward laminar flow, HEPA exhaust) and is the standard for BSL2\u002F3 work. Class III provides maximum containment with a totally enclosed cabinet and is used for RG4 agents at BSL4. The more you need to protect, the higher the class.",{"question":179,"answer":180},"Can I use a Class I cabinet for BSL2 work?","No. Using Class I for BSL2 (RG2 organisms) is a regulatory violation and a containment failure. Class II is required for BSL2 because RG2 organisms need product protection that Class I does not provide. Cost or equipment availability does not override this requirement.",{"question":182,"answer":183},"What is the difference between Type A2, Type B1, and Type B2 cabinets?","Type A2 recirculates 70% of air within the cabinet and exhausts 30% to the room; it is the workhorse for most BSL2\u002F3 work. Type B1 recirculates 30% and exhausts 70% to a hard duct; it is used when volatile chemicals or greater containment is needed. Type B2 exhausts 100% to a hard duct; it provides maximum containment but uses more energy. For most BSL2\u002F3 work, Type A2 is sufficient and is the standard choice.",{"question":185,"answer":186},"How often does a biosafety cabinet need to be certified?","Most regulations require annual recertification (some require every 6 months for heavily used cabinets). Certification verifies that the cabinet's airflow, HEPA filter integrity, and containment function are still adequate. Using a cabinet that hasn't been recently certified is a containment failure. Know the certification date before you work.",{"question":188,"answer":189},"What is the difference between a biosafety cabinet and a laminar airflow cabinet?","A BSC protects the worker from biohazards with inward airflow drawing aerosols away from the worker. A laminar airflow cabinet protects the product from contamination with outward airflow that pushes air toward the worker. Never use a laminar airflow cabinet for pathogenic work. For the full comparison, see Laminar Airflow Cabinet: Types and Working Principle.",{"question":191,"answer":192},"Is a Class II cabinet enough for all BSL3 work?","Class II is acceptable for most BSL3 organisms, but some highly hazardous RG3 agents may require Class III depending on institutional policy and the specific organism. Check your lab's SOPs and your biosafety officer's recommendations for agents on the borderline between Class II and Class III.",[194],"biosafety-levels",{"slug":196,"title":197,"description":198,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":199,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":200,"tags":222},"blastomyces-dermatitidis-pathogenesis-diagnosis","Blastomyces dermatitidis: Morphology, Pathogenesis, and Lab Diagnosis","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Blastomyces dermatitidis\u003C\u002Fem> appears in tissue as a broad-based budding yeast with a thick, double-contoured cell wall (not a capsule). Learn its morphology, dimorphism, pathogenesis, how it differs from look-alikes, and lab diagnosis.\u003C\u002Fp>","2019-12-14",[201,204,207,210,213,216,219],{"question":202,"answer":203},"\u003Cp>What does \u003Cem>Blastomyces dermatitidis \u003C\u002Fem>look like under the microscope?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In tissue it is a large, round yeast (8 to 15 micrometers) with a single broad-based bud and a thick, double-contoured cell wall, and it is multinucleate. In the environment it is a mold with septate hyphae and oval \"lollipop\" conidia.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":205,"answer":206},"\u003Cp>Does \u003Cem>Blastomyces \u003C\u002Fem>have a capsule?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. It has a thick, double-contoured cell wall that can look like a bright rim. The capsule is the feature of \u003Cem>Cryptococcus\u003C\u002Fem>, not \u003Cem>Blastomyces\u003C\u002Fem>. This is a common point of confusion.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":208,"answer":209},"\u003Cp>What is broad-based budding?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It describes a daughter yeast cell attached to the parent by a wide, flat base rather than a narrow neck. It is the defining microscopic feature of \u003Cem>Blastomyces dermatitidis\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":211,"answer":212},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Blastomyces\u003C\u002Fem> different from \u003Cem>Cryptococcus\u003C\u002Fem>?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Blastomyces\u003C\u002Fem> shows broad-based budding with a thick cell wall. \u003Cem>Cryptococcus\u003C\u002Fem> shows narrow-based budding with a wide clear capsule (seen as a halo on India ink). The budding base and the wall-versus-capsule distinction separate them.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":214,"answer":215},"\u003Cp>What is BAD-1?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>BAD-1 (\u003Cem>Blastomyces\u003C\u002Fem> adhesin-1, formerly WI-1) is the main virulence factor. It binds the yeast to macrophages, blocks complement, and suppresses the immune response.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":217,"answer":218},"\u003Cp>What disease does \u003Cem>Blastomyces dermatitidis\u003C\u002Fem> cause?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Blastomycosis, which usually begins as a lung infection and can spread to the skin, bones, genitourinary tract, and central nervous system.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":220,"answer":221},"\u003Cp>Where is blastomycosis found?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is endemic to North America, especially the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys, the Great Lakes region, and parts of Canada, with occasional cases elsewhere.\u003C\u002Fp>",[72],{"slug":224,"title":225,"description":226,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":227,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":228,"tags":249},"overview-of-sporotrichosis-rose-gardeners-disease-and-laboratory-diagnosis","Sporothrix schenckii (Rose Gardener's Disease): Pathogenesis, and Lab Diagnosis","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Sporothrix schenckii \u003C\u002Fem>causes sporotrichosis (rose gardener's disease), appearing as cigar-shaped yeast in tissue and rosette conidia in the mold form. Learn its morphology, lymphocutaneous spread, cat-transmitted disease, and treatment.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-08-01",[229,232,235,238,241,244,247],{"question":230,"answer":231},"\u003Cp>What does \u003Cem>Sporothrix \u003C\u002Fem>look like under the microscope?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In tissue at body temperature it is a small (3 to 5 μm) cigar-shaped budding yeast. In the environment it is a mold with delicate hyphae and conidia arranged in a rosette or daisy pattern.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":233,"answer":234},"\u003Cp>What is cigar-shaped yeast?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It describes the elongated, cigar-like shape of the \u003Cem>Sporothrix\u003C\u002Fem> yeast cells seen in infected tissue. It is the identifying feature of \u003Cem>Sporothrix schenckii\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":236,"answer":237},"\u003Cp>Why is it called rose gardener's disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because it is classically acquired when the fungus is implanted into the skin by a thorn or plant material, such as from roses or sphagnum moss, so gardeners and florists are commonly affected.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":239,"answer":240},"\u003Cp>How does sporotrichosis spread in the body?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Most often as a lymphocutaneous infection: a nodule forms at the site of injury, and further nodules appear in a chain ascending along the lymphatic vessels.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":242,"answer":243},"\u003Cp>What is cat-transmitted sporotrichosis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A zoonotic form caused mainly by \u003Cem>Sporothrix brasiliensis\u003C\u002Fem>, spread from infected cats through scratches and bites. It is common in Brazil, tends to be more severe, and affects cat owners and veterinarians.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":245,"answer":246},"\u003Cp>How is sporotrichosis diagnosed?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Culture is the gold standard, because the yeast is hard to see directly. The mold that grows is confirmed by converting it to the cigar-shaped yeast form at 37°C. PAS and silver stains can show the yeast in tissue.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":248,"answer":248},"",[72],{"enabled":251,"threads":252,"total":253},true,[],0,[255,261,268,275,281,286,292,297,303,306,312],{"slug":256,"name":43,"description":257,"image":258,"body":259,"postCount":260},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",481,{"slug":262,"name":263,"description":264,"image":265,"body":266,"postCount":267},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":269,"name":270,"description":271,"image":272,"body":273,"postCount":274},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":276,"name":277,"description":271,"image":278,"body":279,"postCount":280},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":271,"image":42,"body":284,"postCount":285},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":287,"name":288,"description":289,"image":42,"body":290,"postCount":291},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":293,"name":294,"description":295,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":271,"image":300,"body":301,"postCount":302},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":304,"name":305,"description":295,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":307,"name":100,"description":308,"image":309,"body":310,"postCount":311},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":313,"name":314,"description":315,"image":316,"body":317,"postCount":296},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[319,326,332,337,342,347,351,355,359,364,368,373,377,382,387,391,395,399,404,409,413,417,421,426,429,433,437,441,446,451,455,459,463,468,471,475,479,483,486,490,494,498,502,506,510,514,518,522,527,531,535,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,571,575,579,583,587,591,595,599,603,606,610,613,616,619,622,625,628,631,634,637,640,643,646,649],{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":323,"body":324,"postCount":325},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":327,"name":328,"description":329,"image":42,"body":330,"postCount":331},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":336},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":346},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":336},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":352,"name":353,"description":354,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":356,"name":357,"description":358,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":362,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":365,"name":366,"description":367,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":325},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":369,"name":370,"description":371,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":372},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":374,"name":375,"description":376,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":325},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":378,"name":379,"description":380,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":381},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":383,"name":384,"description":385,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":386},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":388,"name":389,"description":390,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":372},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":392,"name":393,"description":42,"image":42,"body":394,"postCount":285},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":396,"name":397,"description":42,"image":42,"body":398,"postCount":381},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":400,"name":401,"description":402,"image":42,"body":403,"postCount":363},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":405,"name":406,"description":407,"image":42,"body":408,"postCount":285},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":410,"name":411,"description":412,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":414,"name":415,"description":416,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":418,"name":419,"description":420,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":422,"name":423,"description":424,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":425},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":194,"name":427,"description":428,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":430,"name":431,"description":432,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":434,"name":435,"description":436,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":438,"name":439,"description":440,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":346},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":442,"name":443,"description":444,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":445},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":346},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":163,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":474,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":476,"name":477,"description":478,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":381},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":480,"name":481,"description":482,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":445},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":72,"name":484,"description":485,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":487,"name":488,"description":489,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":491,"name":492,"description":493,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":497,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":499,"name":500,"description":501,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":503,"name":504,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":505},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":509,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":511,"name":512,"description":513,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":515,"name":516,"description":517,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":325},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":519,"name":520,"description":521,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":523,"name":524,"description":525,"image":42,"body":526,"postCount":285},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":528,"name":529,"description":530,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":291},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":532,"name":533,"description":534,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":381},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":550,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":372},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":336},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":346},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":505},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":572,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":582,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":584,"name":585,"description":586,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":590,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":592,"name":593,"description":594,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":596,"name":597,"description":598,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":600,"name":601,"description":602,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":604,"name":605,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":296},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":607,"name":608,"description":609,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":505},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":614,"name":615,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":617,"name":618,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":620,"name":621,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":285},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":626,"name":627,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":505},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":629,"name":630,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":632,"name":633,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":505},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":635,"name":636,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":638,"name":639,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":445},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":641,"name":642,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":644,"name":645,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":647,"name":648,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":505},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":650,"name":651,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":450},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]