[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fjTyH40EW8Cm67J8xJTiQ0mt34MNQWZTYpYYXJEV0XRg":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":116,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":180},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":61,"related":63,"comments":112},"hair-perforation-test","Hair Perforation Test: Principle, Procedure, and Interpretation","\u003Cp>The in vitro hair perforation test for dermatophytes: principle, procedure, and how to read it. Which organisms are positive, and how it separates \u003Cem>T. mentagrophytes\u003C\u002Fem> from \u003Cem>T. rubrum\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>M. canis\u003C\u002Fem> from \u003Cem>M. equinum.\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-30",false,"mycology","Two dermatophyte cultures look almost identical, and the plate alone will not separate them. This is the everyday problem the hair perforation test solves. It is a simple in vitro test that asks one question of a fungus: can it bore a hole straight through a hair, or only erode its surface? The answer separates two of the most commonly confused dermatophyte pairs in the laboratory, and it does so with nothing more than sterile hair, water, and a microscope.\n\nThe hair perforation test is one of the differential tests used after culture, once colony and microscopic morphology have narrowed a dermatophyte to two look-alikes. For where it sits in the full identification workflow, see the [dermatophytes lab diagnosis article.](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fdermatophytes-tinea-and-lab-diagnosis\u002F)\n\n## Principle\n\nSome dermatophytes produce keratinase and related enzymes strong enough to penetrate a hair shaft perpendicularly, boring wedge-shaped holes into it. Others can only erode the surface without true penetration. The in vitro hair perforation test exposes sterile hair to the test fungus and looks, under the microscope, for these wedge-shaped perforations.\n\n- **Positive:** the fungus forms wedge-shaped (cone-shaped) perforations that penetrate into the hair shaft. This reflects true keratinolytic penetrating activity.\n- **Negative:** the fungus grows along the hair and may cause surface erosion, but does not bore perpendicular wedge-shaped holes into it.\n\nThe test is a phenotypic readout of how aggressively a species attacks keratin, which is why it tracks with the more keratinolytic member of each look-alike pair.\n\n## Procedure\n\nThe classic method uses sterile hair floated on water with a little yeast extract as a nutrient source.\n\n1. **Prepare the hair.** Cut short lengths of hair (traditionally fine, prepubertal or children's hair, which is more readily perforated) and sterilize them, for example by autoclaving.\n2. **Set up the dish.** Place several sterile hair fragments in a sterile Petri dish. Add sterile distilled water to cover, and add a few drops of sterile 10% yeast extract as a nutrient source.\n3. **Inoculate.** Add fragments of the test fungus (mycelium from the culture) to the dish.\n4. **Incubate.** Incubate at room temperature (about 25°C) and examine weekly for up to 4 weeks.\n5. **Examine.** At intervals, remove a hair, place it on a slide in lactophenol cotton blue, and examine microscopically for perforations.\n\nAlways run a known positive control (for example *T. mentagrophytes*) and a known negative control (for example *T. rubrum*) alongside the test isolate, so a slow or weak reaction is read correctly.\n\n## Reading and interpretation\n\nLook at the hair under the microscope for the shape of the fungal attack on the shaft.\n\n- **Positive result:** discrete **wedge-shaped (cone-shaped) perforations** running perpendicular into the hair shaft, as if the fungus has drilled into it.\n- **Negative result:** no true perforations; the fungus lies along the surface and may erode it, but does not bore perpendicular wedges.\n\n**The two look-alike pairs the test settles:**\n\n| Look-alike pair | Positive (perforates) | Negative (no perforation) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| *Trichophyton* pair | *T. mentagrophytes* | *T. rubrum* |\n| *Microsporum* pair | *M. canis* | *M. equinum* |\n\nFor the *Trichophyton* pair, the result agrees with the urease test: *T. mentagrophytes* is positive on both hair perforation and [urease](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Furease-test-principle-procedure-interpretation-and-urease-positive-organsims\u002F), and *T. rubrum* is negative on both. Two tests that agree give a confident separation.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Wedge in, positive.** A positive test is a wedge-shaped hole drilled perpendicular into the hair. Surface erosion without a wedge is negative.\n\n**Mentagrophytes moves, rubrum rests.** The same anchor used across the cluster: *T. mentagrophytes* is the active one, positive on hair perforation and urease. *T. rubrum* does neither. The perforating member of the *Trichophyton* pair is always *mentagrophytes*.\n\n**Canis perforates, equinum abstains.** For the *Microsporum* pair, *M. canis* perforates hair and *M. equinum* does not. The commoner, more clinically important species (*canis*) is the positive one.\n\n## Key exam facts\n\n| Fact | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Purpose | Differentiate morphologically similar dermatophytes |\n| Principle | Detects wedge-shaped perforation of hair by keratinolytic fungi |\n| Medium | Sterile hair on water + yeast extract |\n| Incubation | Room temperature (\\~25°C), up to 4 weeks, examined weekly |\n| Positive appearance | Wedge-shaped (cone-shaped) perpendicular perforations |\n| *Trichophyton* pair | *T. mentagrophytes* positive; *T. rubrum* negative |\n| *Microsporum* pair | *M. canis* positive; *M. equinum* negative |\n| Agrees with | Urease test for the *T. mentagrophytes* vs *T. rubrum* separation |\n| Controls | Positive (*T. mentagrophytes*) and negative (*T. rubrum*) run alongside |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**Positive is a wedge, not just contact.** The fungus growing on or eroding the hair surface is not a positive result. A positive test requires true wedge-shaped perforations boring perpendicular into the shaft. Surface erosion alone is negative.\n\n**The positive member is the more aggressive species.** In each pair, the species that perforates is the more keratinolytic one: *T. mentagrophytes* over *T. rubrum*, and *M. canis* over *M. equinum*. Linking \"perforates\" to \"more active\" makes the pairings easy to recall.\n\n**Hair perforation and urease point the same way for the Trichophyton pair.** Both are positive for *T. mentagrophytes* and negative for *T. rubrum*. They are two independent tests that agree, not two names for the same test. Running both increases confidence.\n\n**Child hair is used for a reason.** Fine, prepubertal hair is more readily perforated, so it is the traditional substrate. Using coarse adult hair can give weak or delayed reactions, which is one reason a positive control is run alongside.\n\n**A negative test is not \"no growth.\"** A negative result means the fungus grew but did not bore wedge-shaped holes. Absence of perforation is the finding, not absence of the fungus.\n\n## References\n\n- Chander J. Textbook of Medical Mycology. 4th ed. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers; 2018.\n- Tille PM. Bailey and Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology. 15th ed. Elsevier; 2022.\n- Procop GW, Church DL, Hall GS, et al. Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 7th ed. Wolters Kluwer; 2017.\n- Larone DH. Larone's Medically Important Fungi: A Guide to Identification. 6th ed. ASM Press; 2018.",[49,52,55,58],{"question":50,"answer":51},"\u003Cp>Which organisms are positive in the hair perforation test?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Trichophyton mentagrophytes\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Microsporum canis\u003C\u002Fem> are positive (they perforate hair). \u003Cem>Trichophyton rubrum\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Microsporum equinum\u003C\u002Fem> are negative.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":53,"answer":54},"\u003Cp>What does a positive hair perforation test look like?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Wedge-shaped or cone-shaped perforations running perpendicular into the hair shaft, seen microscopically, as if the fungus has drilled into the hair.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":56,"answer":57},"\u003Cp>Why is the hair perforation test done?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>To separate dermatophytes that look alike on culture, most often \u003Cem>T. mentagrophytes\u003C\u002Fem> from \u003Cem>T. rubrum\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>M. canis\u003C\u002Fem> from \u003Cem>M. equinum\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":59,"answer":60},"\u003Cp>How long does the hair perforation test take?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is examined weekly for up to 4 weeks. Many positives appear earlier, but the test is held for the full period before being called negative.\u003C\u002Fp>",[62],"dermatophytes",[64,93],{"slug":65,"title":66,"description":67,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":68,"createdDate":69,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":70,"tags":92},"dermatophytes-tinea-and-lab-diagnosis","Dermatophytes: Lab Diagnosis and How to Tell the Three Genera Apart","\u003Cp>How the laboratory identifies dermatophytes: KOH microscopy, SDA culture, Wood's lamp, and the differential tests that separate look-alike \u003Cem>Trichophyton, Microsporum\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Epidermophyton\u003C\u002Fem> species.\u003C\u002Fp>","Sushmita Baniya","2022-08-21",[71,74,77,80,83,86,89],{"question":72,"answer":73},"\u003Cp>What are dermatophytes?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Dermatophytes are a group of fungi that feed on keratin, the tough protein found in skin, hair, and nails. They cause the skin infections known as tinea or ringworm. The three medically important genera are \u003Cem>Trichophyton\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Microsporum\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Epidermophyton\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":75,"answer":76},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between dermatophytes and dermatophytosis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Dermatophytes are the fungi. Dermatophytosis is the infection they cause. Dermatophytosis is also called tinea or ringworm, and it is named by body site, such as tinea capitis on the scalp or tinea pedis on the feet.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":78,"answer":79},"\u003Cp>How are the three dermatophyte genera different?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They differ in which tissue they invade. \u003Cem>Trichophyton\u003C\u002Fem> infects skin, hair, and nails. \u003Cem>Epidermophyton\u003C\u002Fem> infects skin and nails but not hair. \u003Cem>Microsporum\u003C\u002Fem> infects skin and hair but not nails. The tissue involved is often the first clue to the genus.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":81,"answer":82},"\u003Cp>How are dermatophyte infections diagnosed in the laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The main steps are a KOH wet mount of skin, hair, or nail to look for fungal elements, followed by culture on Sabouraud dextrose agar to grow and identify the fungus. Colony appearance and the shape of macroconidia and microconidia under lactophenol cotton blue identify the genus, and differential tests separate similar species.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":84,"answer":85},"\u003Cp>How do you tell Trichophyton rubrum from Trichophyton mentagrophytes?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By a small set of tests that agree with each other. \u003Cem>T. mentagrophytes\u003C\u002Fem> perforates hair in the hair perforation test and hydrolyzes urea (urease positive). \u003Cem>T. rubrum\u003C\u002Fem> does neither and instead shows a deep red pigment on the reverse of the colony.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":87,"answer":88},"\u003Cp>Why does ringworm form a ring?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The fungus grows outward from the point where it started, spreading in a circle through the outer skin. The active edge advances while the center begins to clear, which produces the ring shape with a raised border. There is no worm involved.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":90,"answer":91},"\u003Cp>Does a negative Wood's lamp rule out a fungal infection?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Only some dermatophytes fluoresce under Wood's lamp, mainly certain \u003Cem>Microsporum\u003C\u002Fem> species on the scalp. Most \u003Cem>Trichophyton\u003C\u002Fem> species do not fluoresce, so a negative result does not exclude tinea. KOH microscopy and culture are still needed.\u003C\u002Fp>",[62],{"slug":94,"title":95,"description":96,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":97,"lastUpdatedDate":98,"draft":45,"category":99,"image":42,"faq":100,"tags":110},"urease-test-principle-procedure-interpretation-and-urease-positive-organsims","Urease Test: Principle, Procedure, Interpretation & Urease-Positive Organisms","\u003Cp>Urease test principle and procedure: including the PUNCH mnemonic, the rapid-vs-delayed reading windows, and why \u003Cem>H. pylori\u003C\u002Fem> gastric biopsies use this exact reaction.\u003C\u002Fp>","2012-12-29","2026-08-13","biochemical-tests",[101,104,107],{"question":102,"answer":103},"Why did my Enterobacter test negative in broth but positive on agar?","\u003Cp>Stuart's broth has a higher buffering capacity than Christensen's agar, which can mask the weaker, delayed urease activity of organisms like \u003Cem>Enterobacter\u003C\u002Fem>. The agar is more sensitive for delayed producers, if results disagree, trust the agar reading.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":105,"answer":106},"\u003Cp>My urea agar turned pink overnight even though I expected a negative, what happened?\u003C\u002Fp>","Check what medium you used. If it's peptone-rich, peptone hydrolysis alone can raise the pH and mimic a positive reaction, independent of true urease activity.",{"question":108,"answer":109},"How is the urease test used to diagnose H. pylori?","\u003Cp>A crushed gastric biopsy sample is placed directly into urease broth. If \u003Cem>H. pylori\u003C\u002Fem> is present, its urease rapidly hydrolyzes urea and turns the broth pink within minutes to hours, this is the basis of the rapid urease (CLO) test performed during endoscopy.\u003C\u002Fp>",[111],"enzyme-tests",{"enabled":113,"threads":114,"total":115},true,[],0,[117,123,130,136,142,147,153,158,164,167,174],{"slug":118,"name":43,"description":119,"image":120,"body":121,"postCount":122},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",486,{"slug":124,"name":125,"description":126,"image":127,"body":128,"postCount":129},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":131,"name":68,"description":132,"image":133,"body":134,"postCount":135},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":137,"name":138,"description":132,"image":139,"body":140,"postCount":141},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":143,"name":144,"description":132,"image":42,"body":145,"postCount":146},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":148,"name":149,"description":150,"image":42,"body":151,"postCount":152},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":154,"name":155,"description":156,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":157},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":159,"name":160,"description":132,"image":161,"body":162,"postCount":163},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":165,"name":166,"description":156,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":157},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":168,"name":169,"description":170,"image":171,"body":172,"postCount":173},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":175,"name":176,"description":177,"image":178,"body":179,"postCount":157},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[181,188,194,199,204,209,213,217,221,226,230,235,239,244,249,253,257,261,266,271,275,279,283,288,292,296,300,304,309,314,318,322,326,331,335,339,343,347,351,355,359,363,367,371,375,379,383,387,392,396,400,404,408,412,415,419,423,427,431,435,439,443,447,451,455,459,463,467,470,474,477,480,483,486,489,492,494,497,500,503,506,509,512],{"slug":182,"name":183,"description":184,"image":185,"body":186,"postCount":187},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":189,"name":190,"description":191,"image":42,"body":192,"postCount":193},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":195,"name":196,"description":197,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":198},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":200,"name":201,"description":202,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":205,"name":206,"description":207,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":208},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":210,"name":211,"description":212,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":198},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":214,"name":215,"description":216,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":193},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":218,"name":219,"description":220,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":193},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":222,"name":223,"description":224,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":227,"name":228,"description":229,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":231,"name":232,"description":233,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":234},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":236,"name":237,"description":238,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":240,"name":241,"description":242,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":245,"name":246,"description":247,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":248},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":250,"name":251,"description":252,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":234},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":254,"name":255,"description":42,"image":42,"body":256,"postCount":146},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":258,"name":259,"description":42,"image":42,"body":260,"postCount":243},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":262,"name":263,"description":264,"image":42,"body":265,"postCount":225},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":267,"name":268,"description":269,"image":42,"body":270,"postCount":146},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":272,"name":273,"description":274,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":276,"name":277,"description":278,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":280,"name":281,"description":282,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":286,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":289,"name":290,"description":291,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":293,"name":294,"description":295,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":297,"name":298,"description":299,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":301,"name":302,"description":303,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":305,"name":306,"description":307,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":308},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":310,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":317,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":319,"name":320,"description":321,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":208},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":323,"name":324,"description":325,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":327,"name":328,"description":329,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":330},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":332,"name":333,"description":334,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":340,"name":341,"description":342,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":344,"name":345,"description":346,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":308},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":352,"name":353,"description":354,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":356,"name":357,"description":358,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":362,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":152},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":364,"name":365,"description":366,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":370},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":374,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":193},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":380,"name":381,"description":382,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":384,"name":385,"description":386,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":388,"name":389,"description":390,"image":42,"body":391,"postCount":146},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":152},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":397,"name":398,"description":399,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":401,"name":402,"description":403,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":208},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":405,"name":406,"description":407,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":157},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":409,"name":410,"description":411,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":111,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":234},"Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":198},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":208},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":370},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":208},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":146},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":157},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":471,"name":472,"description":473,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":475,"name":476,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":370},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":478,"name":479,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":484,"name":485,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":487,"name":488,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":490,"name":491,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":370},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":62,"name":493,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":225},"Dermatophytes",{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":370},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":308},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":504,"name":505,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":203},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":510,"name":511,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":370},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]