[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fkxxkODiftl3ghWaiRQK1tlwoXdybPXQGLns9HlG0MBM":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":249,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":311},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":74,"related":75,"comments":245},"giemsa-stain-principle-procedure-and-results","Giemsa Stain: Principle, Procedure, Results","Complete Giemsa staining guide; stock and working solution preparation, pH 7.2 buffer chemistry, thick\u002Fthin smear procedure, organism-specific results, and a troubleshooting table for common staining problems.",null,"Nisha Rijal","2019-07-13","2026-08-22",false,"staining-techniques","A laboratory technician in a busy district hospital stains a batch of thirty blood smears for malaria screening. Every smear comes back uniformly blue-grey, no clear differentiation, parasite morphology unreadable, Schüffner's dots impossible to confirm. She re-checks her reagents: the Giemsa stock is fresh, the dilution is correct.\n\nThe problem turns out to be the buffered water; it was prepared with tap water instead of pH 7.2 phosphate buffer, and the local water supply runs alkaline.\n\nThis single variable, **pH** is responsible for more failed Giemsa stains in field and resource-limited laboratories than any other factor. Understanding not just the staining steps but the chemistry behind them is what separates a technician who can follow a protocol from one who can troubleshoot it when results go wrong.\n\nGiemsa stain is a type of Romanowsky stain named after Gustav Giemsa, a German chemist who created a dye solution. It **was primarily designed to demonstrate malarial parasites in blood smears**, and it is also widely used in hematology for the routine examination of blood smears.\n\n## Principle of Giemsa Stain\n\nGiemsa stain is a differential (Romanowsky-type) stain containing a mixture of azure and methylene blue (basic, positively charged dyes) and eosin (an acidic, negatively charged dye). The differential color comes from these dyes binding oppositely charged cell components.\n\nEosin, the acidic dye, binds basic (eosinophilic) components such as cytoplasm, hemoglobin, and eosinophil granules, staining them pink to red.\n\nAzure and methylene blue, the basic dyes, bind acidic (basophilic) components, especially the nucleic acids of the nucleus, staining them blue to purple.\n\nThe azure-eosin complex has a particular affinity for the phosphate groups of DNA, and in adenine-thymine (AT) rich regions. This AT affinity is the basis of the chromosome G-banding application; in a routine blood or tissue smear, the stain colors many components differentially, not DNA alone.\n\nMethanol acts as the fixative: it preserves the cells without further change and makes them adhere to the glass slide. (It fixes, but does not itself stain.)\n\n### Giemsa vs Wright vs Wright-Giemsa\n\nThese three stains are frequently mentioned interchangeably in clinical and research settings, which causes significant confusion. Here is a clear distinction:\n\n| Feature | Giemsa stain | Wright stain | Wright-Giemsa stain |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Composition | Azure B + eosin Y + methylene blue in glycerol\u002Fmethanol | Eosin Y + methylene azure B in methanol (no glycerol) | Combination of both Wright and Giemsa formulations |\n| Fixative | Methanol (separate step for thin smears) | Methanol incorporated into stain (self-fixing) | Methanol incorporated |\n| Staining time | Longer (45–60 min for slow method) | Shorter (2–5 min) | Intermediate |\n| Malaria diagnosis | **Preferred, gold standard** | Less reliable for malaria parasites | Acceptable |\n| Blood cell morphology | Good | **Preferred in hematology labs** | Excellent, best of both |\n| Parasite detail | **Superior**, better for stippling (Schüffner dots, Maurer clefts) | Adequate | Very good |\n| pH sensitivity | High, requires buffered water pH 7.2 | High, requires buffered water | High |\n| WHO recommendation | Recommended for malaria diagnosis | Not specifically recommended | Acceptable alternative |\n\n**In practice:** Wright stain is the standard in hematology for routine blood cell differential counts. Giemsa stain is the WHO-recommended method for malaria diagnosis and parasite detection. Wright-Giemsa combines advantages of both and is widely used in reference laboratories for both hematology and parasitology.\n\n## Preparation of Giemsa Stain\n\nGiemsa is the most commonly used stain for staining blood films for malaria diagnosis. It is available commercially as a ready-to-use product, but the quality varies according to the source. By following simple rules, laboratories can prepare a stock solution of Giemsa stain using Giemsa stain powder, thus ensuring the use of consistent, high-quality stain.\n\n### Composition\n\nThe essential ingredients of Giemsa stain are the same; however, dilutions can be made depending on their use.\n\n| Ingredient | Amount |\n| --- | --- |\n| Giemsa powder | 7.6 g |\n| Glycerol | 500 ml |\n| Methanol | 500 ml |\n\n### Supplies, Materials, and equipment\n\n 1. Giemsa powder or stain, 7.6 g (preferably Biological Stain Commission grade, to ensure a very good product of standard quality;\n 2. absolute methanol, pure, high-grade, acetone-free, 500 mL;\n 3. glycerol, high-grade, pure, 500 mL;\n 4. methanol-cleaned solid glass beads, 3-5 mm in diameter, 50-100 pieces;\n 5. a spatula or measuring spoon;\n 6. weighing paper;\n 7. a graduated cylinder;\n 8. a glass or plastic funnel;\n 9. a screw-capped, dark or amber glass bottle, clean and dry, 500-ml capacity (If not available, a chemically clean, dry, clear hard glass or polyethylene bottle of suitable size may be used, but should be wrapped in dark paper);\n10. an analytical balance capable of weighing to 0.01 g; and\n11. a shaker, if available.\n\n**Note:**\n\n- The person preparing the Giemsa stain should follow universal precautions, including the use of relevant [personal protective equipment (PPEs)](\u002Fpersonal-protective-equipment-ppe\u002F) such as gloves, safety glasses, and a laboratory gown.\n- Avoid contact and inhalation of methanol and Giemsa stain. Methanol and Giemsa stain are inflammable and highly toxic if inhaled or swallowed. Keep both chemicals in a locked cabinet or cupboard when they are not in use.\n\n### Preparation of Giemsa Stock Solution\n\n 1. Place about 100 methanol-cleaned glass beads into a dark or amber bottle.\n\n 2. Weigh 7.6 g of Giemsa stain powder on an analytical balance, and pour it into the bottle containing the beads through a funnel.\n\n 3. Gently pour about 200 mL of methanol, ensuring that all dry stain is washed into the bottle.\n\n 4. Tighten the screw cap on the bottle and shake it in a circular motion for 2-3 minutes to start dissolving the stain crystals.\n\n 5. Add 500 mL glycerol to the mixture through the funnel, and shake again for 3-5 minutes.\n\n 6. Add the remaining 300 mL of methanol to the mixture through the funnel, ensuring that the last of the methanol washes the last of the glycerol from the funnel into the stain mixture.\n\n 7. Tighten the screw-cap on the bottle.\n\n    The bottle should be tightly capped at all times to prevent absorption of water vapor and to avoid evaporation and oxidation of the stain by high humidity. If the bottle is tightly stoppered and free of moisture, the Giemsa stain is stable at room temperature for longer.\n\n 8. About six times on the first day, continue shaking for 2-3 minutes each.\n\n 9. On the first day, shake the bottle about six times, 2–3 minutes each time.\n\n    Then shake it every day for at least seven days, about six times a day, 2–3 minutes each. A mechanical shaker may be used if available. This prolonged shaking is what fully dissolves the stain and develops its staining quality.\n\n10. Label the bottle clearly with the batch number, the name of the person who prepared the stock, date of preparation and date of expiry, and document in the quality control log-book.\n\n    Giemsa stock solution\\\n    Batch No.: 2022-01 \\\n    Prepared by: First name Last name\\\n    Date prepared: 17 Aug 2022\\\n    Expiry date: 17 Aug 2024\\\n    #2022-01 indicates the year prepared and the stock number.\n\n11. **Tighten the screw-cap on the bottle to prevent absorption of water vapor from the air, and store it in a cool place away from direct sunlight.**\n\n    Do NOT contaminate the stock Giemsa solution with water; even the smallest amount of water will cause the stain to deteriorate, making staining progressively ineffective. Store in a dark glass bottle in a cool, dry, shady place, away from direct sunlight. If a clear stock bottle is used, wrap it in thick dark paper to avoid light penetration.\n\n## Working Solution of Giemsa Stain\n\nWorking solution of Giemsa stain should be freshly prepared from Giemsa stock solution. Depending upon the method of staining used to stain malaria blood films, the Giemsa working solution is either 10% (for the rapid method) or 3% (for the slow method).\n\nA rapid method is used in outpatient clinics and busy laboratories where a quick diagnosis is essential for patient management, whereas a slow method is used for staining a large number of slides collected during epidemiological or field.\n\n**Rapid (10% working solution) method**\n\n1. Commonest method for staining 1-15 slides at a time.\n2. Used in outpatient clinics and busy laboratories\n3. Efficient method but costly (as more stain is consumed)\n\n**Slow (3% working solution) method**\n\n1. Used for staining a larger number of slides (>20)\n2. Ideal for staining blood films collected during cross-sectional or epidemiological surveys, field research, or for preparing batches of slides for teaching\n3. Time-consuming method, so less appropriate when a quick result is needed\n4. Less expensive compared to the rapid method as it requires much less stain.\n\n### Materials and Supplies\n\n- Giemsa stain, transferred and filtered from the stock solution into a 25-or 50-ml bottle;\n- buffered water, pH 7.2;\n- a beaker or tube, clean, 5-10-ml capacity;\n- a Pasteur pipette and\n- Whatman filter paper, grade #1.\n\n### Preparation of Giemsa Working Solution\n\nPrepare either 10% or 3% Giemsa working solution, depending on your need. About 3 mL of stain is required for each slide with a blood film.\n\n1. Place 90 mL of prepared buffered water, pH 7.2, into a clean beaker or tube.\n2. Filter the Giemsa stock solution through paper Whatman #1 and transfer it to a 25 to 50 mL container.\n3. Add 10 mL of Giemsa stock solution using a clean, dry pipette. Do not take the aliquot from the large bottle containing the Giemsa stock solution to avoid contaminating it.\n4. Prepare the Giemsa working solution just before staining the blood film(s), and use it within 15 minutes of preparation. Discard any unused stain.\n\nTo prepare 3% Giemsa working solution, follow the procedure mentioned above, but mix 97 mL of buffered water with 3 mL of Giemsa stock solution.\n\n## Quality Control\n\nRun a known positive control slide (confirmed malaria-positive or a slide with known WBC differential) alongside new batches of stock or working solution, particularly:\n\n- When a new batch of stock solution is first prepared\n- When switching to a new lot or brand of Giemsa powder\n- Periodically (weekly or per laboratory SOP) even with established stock\n\n**Document for each batch:** date prepared, batch number, expiry date, and result of the control slide (pass\u002Ffail). The article's existing stock solution labelling example (Batch No., Prepared by, Date prepared, Expiry date) is good practice — extend the same documentation discipline to the working solution and to control slide results, not just the stock bottle.\n\n### Why pH 7.2 buffered water is critical\n\nThe pH of the water used to dilute Giemsa stain is one of the most important but most commonly overlooked variables in Giemsa staining. Giemsa staining is extremely pH-sensitive:\n\n- **Too acidic (pH below 6.8):** Eosin staining dominates, RBCs appear orange-red, parasites stain poorly, Schüffner's dots and Maurer's clefts may not be visible\n- **Optimal (pH 7.0–7.2):** Correct differential staining, RBCs appear mauve-pink, parasite nuclei red\u002Fpink, parasite cytoplasm blue, stippling clearly visible\n- **Too alkaline (pH above 7.4):** Azure\u002Fmethylene blue dominates, RBCs appear blue-grey, nuclei overstained, everything appears blue, parasite morphology obscured\n\n**Practical preparation of pH 7.2 buffered water:**\n\nUse commercially available phosphate buffer tablets (pH 7.2) dissolved in distilled water, or prepare from:\n\n- Solution A: 9.47 g Na₂HPO₄ (dibasic sodium phosphate) per liter of distilled water\n- Solution B: 9.07 g KH₂PO₄ (potassium dihydrogen phosphate) per liter of distilled water\n- Mix 72 mL of Solution A + 28 mL of Solution B → pH 7.2 buffered water\n\nAlways verify pH with a calibrated pH meter or pH strips before use. Do not use tap water *(its pH is unpredictable and varies by location and season).*\n\n### Staining of the Slides\n\n**For Thin blood smear**s\n\n1. Fix air-dried film in absolute methanol by dipping the film briefly (two dips) in a Coplin jar containing absolute methanol.\n2. Remove and let air dry.\n3. Stain with the working solution of Giemsa: 10% solution for about 10 minutes (rapid method), or 3% solution for 45–60 minutes (slow method).\n4. Wash by briefly dipping the slide in and out of a Coplin jar of buffered water (one or two dips). **Note:** Excessive washing will decolorize the film.\n5. Let air dry in a vertical position. Observe under the microscope first at 40X and then using an oil immersion lens\n\n**For Thick blood smears**\n\n1. Allow the film to air dry thoroughly for several hours or overnight. Do not dry films in an incubator or by heat, because this will fix the blood and interfere with the lysing of the RBCs. **Note:** If a rapid diagnosis of malaria is needed, thick films can be made slightly thinner than usual, allowed to dry for 1 hour, and then stained.\n2. DO NOT FIX.\n3. Stain with diluted Giemsa stain\n4. Wash by placing the film in buffered water for 3 to 5 min.\n5. Let air dry in a vertical position, observe under the microscope at 40X, and then use an oil immersion lens.\n\n**For *Chlamydia trachomatis***\n\nFollow the aforementioned steps with the dilute stain of 1:40 dilution (add 0.5 ml stock Giemsa solution to 19.5 ml buffered water) and leave the stain for 90-120 minutes.\n\nGet details about: [Thick and thin blood smear procedure](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fthick-and-thin-blood-smear\u002F)\n\n## Observation\n\nOn microscopic observation, cell organelles, bacteria, and parasites are distinguished based on their morphology and color;\n\n| Cell Components | The color observed after staining |\n| --- | --- |\n| Red blood cells | Mauve-pink |\n| Neutrophils | Reddish purple nuclei with pink cytoplasm |\n| Eosinophils | Purple nuclei, faintly pink cytoplasm, and red to orange granules. |\n| Basophils | Purple nuclei, blue coarse granules. |\n| Lymphocytes | Dark blue nucleus with light blue cytoplasm. |\n| Monocytes | Pink cytoplasm with a purple color nucleus. |\n| Platelets | Violet to purple color granules. |\n| Nuclei of host cells | Dark purple |\n| Nuclei of WBCs | Dark purple |\n| The cytoplasm of host cells | Pale blue |\n| The cytoplasm of white cells | Pale blue or grey-blue |\n| Melanin granules | Black green |\n| Bacteria | Pale or dark blue |\n| *Chlamydia trachomatis* inclusion bodies | Blue-mauve to dark purple depending on the stage of development |\n| *Borrelia* spirochetes | Mauve-purple |\n| *Yersinia pestis* coccobacilli | Blue with dark stained ends (bipolar \"safety-pin\" staining) |\n| Malaria parasite | Malaria parasites have a red or pink nucleus and blue cytoplasm. If *P. vivax* is seen, the Schüffner dots are seen as an even carpet of pink dots in the cytoplasm of red blood cells . If *P. falciparum* is observed, Maurer clefts will be seen as unevenly distributed, coarse bodies in the red cell cytoplasm. |\n\n## Uses of Giemsa Stain\n\nWright-Giemsa’s stain is commonly used to demonstrate the cellular elements in peripheral blood and bone marrow smears. Giemsa stain is used to obtain differential white blood cell counts. It is also used to differentiate the nuclear and cytoplasmic morphology of the various blood cells like platelets, RBCs, and WBCs.\n\nIn Microbiology, Giemsa stain is used for staining inclusion bodies in *Chlamydia trachomatis*, *Borrelia* species, and if Wayson’s stain is not available, to stain *Yersinia pestis.*\n\nGiemsa stain also stains *Histoplasma capsulatum, Pneumocystis jirovecii* (trophozoites and intracystic bodies, but not the cyst wall, which needs a silver stain), *Klebsiella granulomatis, Talaromyces marneffei* (formerly *Penicillium marneffei*), and occasionally [bacterial capsules](\u002Fcapsule-stain-principle-procedure-results\u002F).\n\nCytogenetics also uses this stain to stain the chromosomes and identify chromosomal aberrations. It is commonly used for G-banding (Giemsa-Banding)\n\n### Parasitology\n\nIn microbiology, this stain is most commonly used in parasitology to detect intraerythrocytic parasites (*Plasmodium, Babesia*) and extracellular blood parasites (*Trypanosoma*, microfilariae). It is also used for the detection of intracellular amastigotes of *Leishmania* species or *Trypanosoma cruzi.*\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fmalarial-parasites.png\" alt=\"Photomicrograph of a Wright-Giemsa-stained peripheral blood smear illustrating several stages of Plasmodium species.\" width=\"685\" height=\"475\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>Photomicrograph of a Wright-Giemsa-stained peripheral blood smear illustrating several stages of Plasmodium species.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\nGet details about: [Plasmodium life cycle and species differentiation](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fplasmodium-malaria-life-cycle-pathogenesis-lab-diagnosis\u002F)\n\n![Tachyzoites of Toxoplasma - Tachyzoites](\u002Fblogs\u002FTachyzoites-of-Toxoplasma-gondii.jpg)Figure: Tachyzoites\n\nGiemsa stain is also used for the laboratory diagnosis of Toxoplasmosis. Tachyzoites of [*Toxoplasma gondii*](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Ftoxoplasma-gondii-properties-life-cycle-diagnosis\u002F) are best seen in needle aspirates, or impression smears stained with Wright-Giemsa. In Giemsa-stained smears characteristics, bow-shaped or crescent-shaped tachyzoites with the central dark-staining nucleus are seen.\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Famastigotes-of-leishmania-donovani.png\" alt=\"Amastigotes of Leishmania donovani\" width=\"602\" height=\"468\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>The Wright-Giemsa-stained impression smear illustrates a few background macrophages and numerous tiny 2 to 3 amastigotes of Leishmania. These forms are often difficult to differentiate from the yeast cells of Histoplasma capsulatum. Careful observation, however, will reveal that many of these forms have a small, rod-shaped kinetoplast, characteristics of Leishmania amastigotes.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n### Bacteriology\n\nWright-Giemsa stain has little use for staining bacteria, but it can be used for the laboratory diagnosis of various obligate intracellular parasites.\n\n![ - Giemsa Staining Photograph showing epithelial cells of conjunctiva containing intra-cytoplasmic inclusions “draped” around nucleus (source)](\u002Fblogs\u002FCytoplasmic-inclusions-Chlamydia.png)Figure: Giemsa Staining Photograph showing epithelial cells of conjunctiva containing intra-cytoplasmic inclusions “draped” around nucleus (source)\n\nThe diagnosis of *Chlamydia trachomatis* infection can be made if large numbers of chlamydial inclusion bodies are seen in a sample stained by the Giemsa or Gimenez methods.\n\nThe laboratory diagnosis of granuloma inguinale relies on the staining of intracellular bacteria in mononuclear cells and observation of “Donovan bodies” in tissue smears or biopsy specimens examined by Giemsa and Wright stains.\n\n![](\u002Fblogs\u002FDark-Stained-Bipolar-Ends-of-Yersinia-Pestis.jpg)Wright-Giemsa stains of peripheral blood smears of people suffering from bubonic plague reveal the characteristics of bipolar staining typical of *Yersinia.* \\\n**Note:** bipolar staining “closed safety pin” shaped cells.\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fgiemsa-in-patient-with-oroya-fever.jpg\" alt=\"Giemsa Smear\" width=\"1024\" height=\"701\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>Picture of Giemsa-stained blood smear from a patient with Oroya fever, showing parasitism of all erythrocytes, with bacillary and coccoid forms of B. bacilliformis.(Courtesy of P. Ventosilla and M. Montes, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru)\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\nIn people suffering from Carrion’s disease, *Bartonella bacilliformis* can be seen in the tissues both intra-and extracellularly. On Giemsa-stained blood films, the organism appears blue-to-purple extraerythrocytic and intraerythrocytic bacilli and coccobacilli.\n\n### Mycology\n\nDetect the intracellular yeast forms of *Histoplasma capsulatum.*\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fhistoplasma-in-giemsa-stain.png\" alt=\"Histoplasma in Giemsa Stain\" width=\"523\" height=\"205\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>Figure: Histoplasma capsulatum within histiocytes seen on bone marrow biopsy staining: (A) Wright–Giemsa and (B) Giemsa\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n### Virology\n\nThe stain is also helpful for demonstrating specific intracellular viral inclusions. Herpes simplex virus produces multinucleated giant cells with intranuclear inclusions, which can be visualized after staining with Wright’s stain (or Wright-Giemsa stain).\n\n## Giemsa Stain Uses by Organism\n\n| Organism | Specimen type | What Giemsa shows | Category |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| *Plasmodium falciparum* | Thick and thin blood smear | Ring forms; crescent-shaped gametocytes; Maurer's clefts (coarse, irregular) | Parasitology |\n| *Plasmodium vivax* | Thick and thin blood smear | Enlarged RBCs; amoeboid trophozoites; Schüffner's dots (fine, pink, regular) | Parasitology |\n| *Plasmodium malariae* | Thick and thin blood smear | Band-form trophozoites; Ziemann's stippling | Parasitology |\n| *Plasmodium ovale* | Thick and thin blood smear | Oval\u002Ffimbriated RBCs; Schüffner's\u002FJames' dots | Parasitology |\n| *Babesia* spp. | Thin blood smear | Intraerythrocytic rings; \"Maltese cross\" (tetrad form) | Parasitology |\n| *Trypanosoma brucei* | Peripheral blood smear | Extracellular trypomastigotes with undulating membrane | Parasitology |\n| *Trypanosoma cruzi* | Peripheral blood smear | C-shaped or U-shaped trypomastigotes | Parasitology |\n| *Leishmania* spp. | Bone marrow aspirate, splenic aspirate | Intracellular amastigotes (Leishman-Donovan bodies) in macrophages, 2–4 μm oval bodies with rod-shaped kinetoplast | Parasitology |\n| *Toxoplasma gondii* | Needle aspirate, impression smear | Bow-shaped or crescent-shaped tachyzoites with dark central nucleus | Parasitology |\n| Microfilaria | Thick blood smear | Sheathed or unsheathed microfilariae | Parasitology |\n| *Chlamydia trachomatis* | Conjunctival scraping, urethral smear | Blue-mauve intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies \"draped\" around nucleus | Bacteriology |\n| *Borrelia* spp. | Peripheral blood smear | Mauve-purple loosely coiled spirochetes between RBCs | Bacteriology |\n| *Yersinia pestis* | Blood smear, lymph node aspirate | Blue coccobacilli with dark bipolar staining (\"closed safety pin\" or \"closed pinhole\" appearance) | Bacteriology |\n| *Bartonella bacilliformis* | Blood smear | Blue-purple intra- and extraerythrocytic bacilli and coccobacilli | Bacteriology |\n| *Klebsiella granulomatis* | Tissue smear | Intracellular organisms in mononuclear cells (\"Donovan bodies\") | Bacteriology |\n| *Histoplasma capsulatum* | Bone marrow, peripheral blood, BAL | Small (2–4 μm) intracellular yeast forms within macrophages; narrow-based budding | Mycology |\n| *Pneumocystis jirovecii* | BAL, induced sputum | Intracystic bodies (ascospores); cysts not stained by Giemsa (use GMS for cysts) | Mycology |\n| *Talaromyces marneffei* | Blood smear, bone marrow | Intracellular yeast-like cells with transverse septum (not budding, distinguishes from *Histoplasma*) | Mycology |\n| Herpes simplex virus | Tzanck smear | Multinucleated giant cells with intranuclear inclusions (Cowdry type A) | Virology |\n| Chromosomes (G-banding) | Tissue culture, amniotic fluid | Dark and light bands on chromosomes for karyotype analysis | Cytogenetics |\n\n## Troubleshooting Common Giemsa Staining Problems\n\n| Problem | Likely cause | Solution |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Everything stains blue, RBCs appear grey-blue | Buffered water too alkaline (pH >7.4) | Prepare fresh buffered water at pH 7.2; verify with pH meter |\n| Everything stains pink\u002Fred, parasites poorly visible | Buffered water too acidic (pH <6.8) | Prepare fresh buffered water at pH 7.2 |\n| Pale, weak staining overall | Working solution too dilute; staining time too short; expired stain | Increase concentration to 10%; extend staining time; prepare fresh stock |\n| Stain precipitate on slide | Water contamination in stock; working solution not filtered; staining too long | Filter stock before use; prepare working solution fresh; reduce staining time |\n| Schüffner's dots not visible | Wrong pH (most common cause); understaining | Correct pH to 7.2; extend staining time |\n| RBCs lysed in thick smear | Thick film fixed in methanol before staining | Never fix thick smears: methanol prevents RBC lysis; start fresh |\n| Excessive background staining | Inadequate washing after staining; slide not clean before use | Wash more thoroughly with buffered water; use clean slides |\n| Organisms not staining | Wrong dilution for organism type (e.g. *Chlamydia* needs 1:40); staining time too short | Use correct dilution per organism (see staining procedure); extend time |\n| Uneven staining across slide | Slide not level during staining; insufficient stain volume | Ensure slide is horizontal; use at least 3 mL stain per slide |\n| Stain color changes over time | Water contamination in stock; exposure to light; heat | Store in dark amber bottle; discard contaminated stock |\n\n## Where Students Actually Get Confused\n\n**1. \"Giemsa and Wright-Giemsa are the same stain.\"** They are related but distinct formulations. Giemsa alone (azure B + eosin Y + methylene blue in glycerol\u002Fmethanol) is the WHO-recommended stain specifically for malaria parasite morphology and stippling detail. \\\n\\\nWright stain is self-fixing and faster, preferred for routine hematology differential counts. Wright-Giemsa combines both and is the common choice in reference laboratories needing both blood cell morphology and parasite detail. Using Wright stain alone for malaria diagnosis is acceptable but inferior: Schüffner's dots and Maurer's clefts are less reliably visualized.\n\n**2. \"Thick and thin smears are stained the same way.\"** No. Thin smears are fixed in methanol before staining; thick smears must **never** be fixed, because methanol prevents the RBC lysis. A thick smear accidentally fixed with methanol (or even methanol vapor from a nearby thin smear) becomes unreadable: RBCs remain intact and opaque, obscuring any parasites present.\n\n**3. \"Any tap water works for buffered water.\"** Tap water pH is unpredictable and varies by location and season. In practice, this is the most common cause of stain failure in field laboratories, especially in regions with naturally alkaline groundwater (common in many limestone-rich areas of South Asia). Always verify [pH with a calibrated meter](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fph-meter-parts-principle-and-applications\u002F) or strips; never assume tap water is neutral.\n\n**4. \"More staining time always gives better results.\"** Understaining causes pale, weak results but overstaining causes excessive background and can obscure fine structures like Schüffner's dots. The troubleshooting table (above) correctly separates \"pale, weak staining\" (too short \u002F too dilute) from pH-driven color problems. Students should not assume every staining failure is a timing issue when pH is the more common root cause.\n\n**5. \"Giemsa stains the cyst wall of *Pneumocystis jirovecii.*\"** Giemsa stains the intracystic bodies (ascospores) of [*P. jirovecii*](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fpneumocystis-jiroveci-properties-laboratory-diagnosis\u002F) but does NOT stain the cyst wall itself. A learner reading only the organism name (and not the specimen\u002Ffinding columns carefully) may assume Giemsa is a complete stain for *Pneumocystis*, it is not. GMS (Gomori methenamine silver) is required to visualize the cyst wall; Giemsa alone risks a false-negative impression if the cyst wall is what is being sought.\n\n## Key Exam Facts in One Table\n\n| Fact | Detail | Memory hook |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Stain type | Romanowsky stain | Named after Gustav Giemsa |\n| Acidic dyes | Eosin Y | Stain basic components (cytoplasm) |\n| Basic dye | Azure B, Methylene blue | Stains acidic components (nucleus) blue-purple |\n| Fixative for thin smear | Methanol | Required, fixes RBCs to slide |\n| Thick smear fixation | **Never fix** | Methanol prevents RBC lysis |\n| Optimal buffer pH | 7.0–7.2 | Single most common failure point |\n| pH too low effect | Eosin dominates, pink\u002Fred overall | Acidic = pink |\n| pH too high effect | Methylene blue dominates, blue-grey overall | Alkaline = blue |\n| Rapid method dilution | 10% working solution | 1–15 slides; outpatient\u002Furgent use |\n| Slow method dilution | 3% working solution | >20 slides; field surveys |\n| Working solution shelf life | Use within 15 minutes of preparation | Discard unused stain |\n| Stock solution shelf life | \\~2 years if kept dry and dark | Water contamination = primary degradation risk |\n| *P. vivax* stippling | Schüffner's dots: fine, regular, pink | Even carpet pattern |\n| *P. falciparum* stippling | Maurer's clefts: coarse, irregular | Patchy distribution |\n| Chlamydia dilution | 1:40 dilution, 90–120 min stain time | Different protocol from blood films |\n| WHO recommendation | Giemsa is gold standard for malaria | Wright stain not specifically recommended for malaria |\n\n**References**\n\n1. World Health Organization. (2016). Malaria Microscopy. Quality Assurance Manual — Version 2. WHO Press, Geneva.\n2. Tille, P. M. (2022). Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology (15th ed.). Elsevier.\n3. Garcia, L. S. (2016). Diagnostic Medical Parasitology (6th ed.). ASM Press.\n4. Barcia, J. J. (2007). The Giemsa stain: its history and applications. International Journal of Surgical Pathology, 15(3), 292–296. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1177\u002F1066896907302239>",[50,53,56,59,62,65,68,71],{"question":51,"answer":52},"Why is Giemsa preferred over Wright stain for malaria?","\u003Cp>WHO-recommended: superior Schüffner's dot and Maurer's cleft demonstration for species ID. Better thick smear performance, 20x concentration for low-density parasitemia detection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"What is the difference between thick and thin blood smears?","\u003Cp>Thick: 20x concentration, high sensitivity, RBCs lysed, harder species ID. Thin: intact RBCs, clear morphology for species ID. Always prepare both: thick for detection, thin for identification.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"Why must thick smears never be fixed with methanol?","Methanol fixes RBC membranes, preventing essential lysis. Thick smears must lyse during staining to reveal parasites. Only thin smears require methanol fixation.",{"question":60,"answer":61},"What is the significance of Schüffner's dots vs Maurer's clefts?","\u003Cp>Schüffner's dots (fine, even, pink, whole RBC) = \u003Cem>P. vivax\u003C\u002Fem> or \u003Cem>P. ovale,\u003C\u002Fem> NOT \u003Cem>P. falciparum. \u003C\u002Fem>Maurer's clefts (coarser, fewer, irregular) = \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>How do you differentiate \u003Cem>Leishmania\u003C\u002Fem> from\u003Cem> Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> on Giemsa?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Leishmania \u003C\u002Fem>has a kinetoplast: small rod adjacent to nucleus. \u003Cem>Histoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> lacks kinetoplast; may show narrow-based budding and pseudocapsule.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>What is the safety pin appearance of \u003Cem>Yersinia pestis\u003C\u002Fem>?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Bipolar staining: dark blue poles, pale centre = closed safety pin. Due to polyphosphate granules at cell poles. Seen in bubonic plague.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"Why does Giemsa stain nucleus purple and cytoplasm blue?","Nuclei (acidic DNA\u002FRNA) attract basic azure dyes = purple. Cytoplasm (basic proteins) attracts acidic eosin = pink\u002Fblue. Granule staining depends on own chemistry.",{"question":72,"answer":73},"How long is Giemsa stock stable?","~2 years in dark amber glass at room temperature. Enemies: water contamination (irreversible) and light. Never return unused stain to stock. Label with date, batch, preparer, expiry.",[],[76,86,115,130,164,183,214],{"slug":77,"title":78,"description":79,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":80,"createdDate":81,"lastUpdatedDate":82,"draft":46,"category":83,"image":42,"faq":84,"tags":85},"personal-protective-equipment-ppe","Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in the Laboratory: Types, Selection, Donning, and Doffing","Which PPE to wear for which laboratory hazard, how requirements change from BSL-1 to BSL-3, why an N95 needs fit testing and a surgical mask does not, and the correct order for putting on and removing PPE safely.","Sushmita Baniya","2022-06-07","2026-08-12","general-microbiology",[],[],{"slug":87,"title":88,"description":89,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":90,"createdDate":91,"lastUpdatedDate":92,"draft":46,"category":93,"image":42,"faq":94,"tags":113},"thick-and-thin-blood-smear","Thick and Thin Blood Smear for Malaria: Preparation, Staining, and Microscopic Examination","Step-by-step guide to preparing thick and thin blood smears for malaria diagnosis: making the smear, Giemsa staining, microscopic examination, species identification, and parasitaemia calculation.","Acharya Tankeshwar","2010-04-20","2026-07-06","parasitology",[95,98,101,104,107,110],{"question":96,"answer":97},"What is the difference between a thick and thin blood smear for malaria?","A thick blood smear concentrates a larger volume of blood by lysing RBCs, making it more sensitive for detecting parasites — used for screening. A thin blood smear preserves intact RBCs, allowing species identification based on RBC morphology, parasite shape, and inclusions like Schüffner's dots. Both are needed: thick to detect, thin to identify.",{"question":99,"answer":100},"Why should methanol never be applied to the thick blood smear?","Methanol fixes (hardens) the red blood cells, preventing them from lysing during Giemsa staining. A fixed thick smear retains intact RBCs, creating a dark opaque background that makes parasite detection impossible. Only the thin smear is fixed with methanol; the thick smear must remain unfixed so RBCs lyse during staining.",{"question":102,"answer":103},"How many fields must be examined before a thick smear is reported as negative for malaria?","A minimum of 100 high-power (100×) oil-immersion fields must be examined before declaring a thick smear negative. In high-suspicion cases (e.g. returned travellers with fever), the entire thick smear should be scanned. If parasites are found, an additional 100 fields should be scanned to check for mixed infections.",{"question":105,"answer":106},"How is parasitaemia calculated from a blood smear?","Using the thick smear (WBC method): count parasites against 200 WBCs, then calculate: (parasites counted ÷ WBCs counted) × 8,000 = parasites per μL. Using the thin smear (RBC method): count parasitised RBCs per 1,000 RBCs; parasitaemia % = (parasitised RBCs ÷ 1,000) × 100. Parasitaemia above 5% meets WHO criteria for severe falciparum malaria.",{"question":108,"answer":109},"What Giemsa stain concentration is used for rapid malaria diagnosis?","A 10% Giemsa working solution is used for rapid diagnosis in hospital and diagnostic laboratories, requiring approximately 10 minutes of staining time. A 3% working solution is used for teaching or field epidemiology purposes but requires 45–60 minutes. Both require a phosphate buffer at pH 7.0–7.2 for optimal staining quality.",{"question":111,"answer":112},"How do you identify P. falciparum on a thin blood smear?","Key features of P. falciparum on thin smear: small ring-form trophozoites (often multiple rings per RBC); appliqué\u002Faccolé forms (ring at RBC margin); crescent-shaped (banana-shaped) gametocytes (pathognomonic); RBCs not enlarged; Maurer's dots (not Schüffner's). Mature trophozoites and schizonts are rarely seen in peripheral blood as they sequester in internal organ capillaries.",[114],"malaria",{"slug":116,"title":117,"description":118,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":90,"createdDate":119,"lastUpdatedDate":120,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":121,"tags":128},"capsule-stain-principle-procedure-results","Capsule Stain: Principle, Procedure, and Results","\u003Cp>Capsule staining detects bacterial capsules. Learn the India ink and Anthony's methods, clinically important capsulated organisms, and the Quellung reaction for pneumococcal identification.\u003C\u002Fp>","2016-10-15","2026-08-21",[122,125],{"question":123,"answer":124},"Why can bacterial capsules not be stained directly?","\u003Cp>Bacterial capsules are composed primarily of polysaccharides (occasionally polypeptides), which are non-ionic. Since conventional dyes are either cationic (basic dyes) or anionic (acidic dyes), they have no charged surface to bind to on the capsule. \u003Cbr>\u003Cbr>Capsule staining is therefore always indirect: the bacterial cell is stained with a basic dye and the background is stained with an acidic dye, revealing the capsule as an unstained clear halo between them.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":126,"answer":127},"\u003Cp>How is India ink used to diagnose Cryptococcal meningitis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>India ink (or nigrosin) is mixed with a drop of CSF on a microscope slide and examined under oil immersion. \u003Cem>Cryptococcus neoformans \u003C\u002Fem>appears as a yeast cell (round to oval, 4-20 μm) surrounded by a clear capsule halo against the dark ink background. The halo can be dramatically large relative to the cell body. \u003Cbr>\u003Cbr>India ink is a rapid, inexpensive bedside diagnostic test with approximately 50-80% sensitivity in cryptococcal meningitis. A negative India ink does not exclude cryptococcal meningitis; the cryptococcal antigen latex agglutination test is more sensitive and should be performed when clinical suspicion is high.\u003C\u002Fp>",[129],"bacterial-staining-technique",{"slug":131,"title":132,"description":133,"seoTitle":134,"seoDescription":135,"author":90,"createdDate":136,"lastUpdatedDate":137,"draft":46,"category":93,"image":42,"faq":138,"tags":163},"plasmodium-malaria-life-cycle-pathogenesis-lab-diagnosis","Plasmodium and Malaria: Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, and Laboratory Diagnosis","Plasmodium life cycle, pathogenesis, and lab diagnosis explained: falciparum vs vivax, why only rings show on a smear, hypnozoites, relapse vs recrudescence.","Malaria Diagnosis: Plasmodium Life Cycle, Smears, RDTs, and PCR","Connect the Plasmodium life cycle with malaria pathogenesis, then compare thick and thin smears, rapid tests, PCR, species clues, and limitations.","2026-06-29","2026-08-25",[139,142,145,148,151,154,157,160],{"question":140,"answer":141},"\u003Cp>Which \u003Cem>Plasmodium\u003C\u002Fem> species causes the most dangerous form of malaria?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Plasmodium falciparum \u003C\u002Fem>causes malignant tertian malaria, the most dangerous form. It can cause cerebral malaria, severe anemia, and multi-organ failure due to sequestration of infected RBCs in deep capillaries.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":143,"answer":144},"\u003Cp>Why does\u003Cem> Plasmodium vivax\u003C\u002Fem> malaria relapse but \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem> does not?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>P. vivax\u003C\u002Fem> (and \u003Cem>P. ovale\u003C\u002Fem>) form dormant hypnozoites in liver hepatocytes. These can reactivate months or years later, causing relapse. \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem> has no hypnozoite stage, so true relapse cannot occur.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":146,"answer":147},"What is the gold standard for malaria diagnosis?","Microscopic examination of Giemsa-stained thick and thin peripheral blood smears remains the gold standard. The thick smear screens for parasites; the thin smear is used for species identification.",{"question":149,"answer":150},"What is the significance of crescent-shaped gametocytes on a blood smear?","\u003Cp>Crescent (banana-shaped) gametocytes are pathognomonic for \u003Cem>Plasmodium falciparum\u003C\u002Fem>. No other human malarial species produces crescent gametocytes, making this one of the most reliable microscopic clues.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":152,"answer":153},"\u003Cp>Why are only ring forms seen in the peripheral blood smear of \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem> malaria?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mature trophozoites and schizonts of \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem> are sequestered in the capillaries of internal organs (brain, spleen, liver) via cytoadherence. They do not circulate in peripheral blood. Only early ring forms are found in peripheral blood under normal conditions.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":155,"answer":156},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between the definitive and intermediate host of \u003Cem>Plasmodium\u003C\u002Fem>?\u003C\u002Fp>","The female Anopheles mosquito is the definitive host because sexual reproduction (gametocyte fertilization, oocyst formation) occurs there. The human is the intermediate host where asexual replication (schizogony) takes place.",{"question":158,"answer":159},"What does HRP-2 detect and which species is it specific for?","\u003Cp>HRP-2 (histidine-rich protein 2) is an antigen specific to \u003Cem>Plasmodium falciparum\u003C\u002Fem>. Malaria RDTs that target HRP-2 will only detect falciparum infections, not other \u003Cem>Plasmodium\u003C\u002Fem> species.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":161,"answer":162},"\u003Cp>Why is primaquine needed to treat \u003Cem>P. vivax\u003C\u002Fem> but not \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem> malaria?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Primaquine targets hypnozoites in the liver. \u003Cem>P. vivax\u003C\u002Fem> has a dormant liver stage (hypnozoites) that blood-stage drugs like chloroquine cannot reach. Without primaquine, the hypnozoites persist and cause relapse. \u003Cem>P. falciparum\u003C\u002Fem> has no hypnozoites, so primaquine is not needed.\u003C\u002Fp>",[114],{"slug":165,"title":166,"description":167,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":90,"createdDate":168,"lastUpdatedDate":169,"draft":46,"category":93,"image":42,"faq":170,"tags":180},"toxoplasma-gondii-properties-life-cycle-diagnosis","Toxoplasma gondii: Life Cycle, Reactivation in AIDS, Congenital Infection, and Diagnosis","Why bradyzoite cysts hide in the brain for decades, why AIDS patients develop ring-enhancing lesions, and when maternal IgG actually protects the fetus.","2022-01-31","2026-08-13",[171,174,177],{"question":172,"answer":173},"How is congenital toxoplasmosis diagnosed in a newborn when the mother is IgG-positive?","All newborns of IgG-positive mothers will have passively transferred maternal IgG antibodies, regardless of whether the infant itself is infected, since IgG crosses the placenta freely. A high IgG titer in a newborn alone does not confirm infection. Detection of IgM antibodies, which do not cross the placenta, provides a much more accurate indication of true infection in the newborn. PCR testing of amniotic fluid prenatally, or of the infant's blood or CSF after birth, can also confirm infection directly.",{"question":175,"answer":176},"\u003Cp>Why does the timing of maternal \u003Cem>Toxoplasma\u003C\u002Fem> infection during pregnancy affect the severity of congenital disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","First-trimester transmission is less common but tends to produce more severe disease (intracerebral calcifications, hydrocephalus, severe neurological sequelae) because the fetal nervous system is at an earlier, more vulnerable stage of development. Third-trimester transmission is more common but often produces disease that is inapparent at birth, since the more developed fetus tolerates the acute infection better initially - however, tissue cysts established at this stage, particularly in the retina, can cause delayed complications such as progressive chorioretinitis and blindness appearing years later, often in the teenage years.",{"question":178,"answer":179},"\u003Cp>Why can toxoplasmosis reactivate years after the initial infection in immunocompromised patients?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Tissue cysts containing bradyzoites can persist for the life of the host without causing inflammation, as long as the immune system continues to hold them in check - this represents a biological stalemate rather than elimination of the parasite. When immune competence is lost, such as in advanced HIV\u002FAIDS, malignancy, or after organ transplantation, bradyzoites within previously dormant tissue cysts (particularly in neural tissue) can convert back into actively multiplying tachyzoites, causing disease through reactivation of latent infection rather than requiring any new exposure.\u003C\u002Fp>",[181,182],"protozoan-parasite","torch-infection",{"slug":184,"title":185,"description":186,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":187,"createdDate":188,"lastUpdatedDate":189,"draft":46,"category":190,"image":42,"faq":191,"tags":213},"ph-meter-parts-principle-and-applications","pH Meter: How Calibration Actually Works and Why Your Reading Drifts","Why a pH meter needs two buffers not one, what the slope really tells you, and how to fix a reading that will not stabilize. The calibration logic behind the button.","Samikshya Acharya","2022-10-20","2026-08-24","lab-equipment",[192,195,198,201,204,207,210],{"question":193,"answer":194},"Why does a pH meter need to be calibrated with two buffers instead of one?","The meter converts voltage to pH using a straight line defined by an offset and a slope. A single buffer (pH 7) only sets the offset (the zero point). A second buffer sets the slope. Two points are needed to define the line, so one-point calibration leaves readings away from pH 7 unreliable.",{"question":196,"answer":197},"Which calibration buffers should I use?","Always start with pH 7.00 to set the zero point. Add pH 4.01 if you are measuring acidic samples, or pH 10.01 (or a pH 9.21 borate standard) for alkaline samples. If you measure across a wide range, use a three-point calibration with 4.01, 7.00, and 10.01. Choose the second buffer to bracket your expected sample.",{"question":199,"answer":200},"What is the slope, and what value is healthy?","The slope is how much the electrode voltage changes per pH unit. The ideal at 25°C is about 59 mV per pH unit. After calibration, a healthy electrode reports a slope of roughly 95 to 105 percent of ideal. A slope well below 95 percent means the electrode is aging or dirty, and its readings can no longer be trusted even if the pH 7 point looks fine.",{"question":202,"answer":203},"Does the pH meter measure hydrogen ions directly?","No. It measures the voltage produced across the glass electrode and converts that voltage to pH using the Nernst equation. The voltage arises from the difference in hydrogen ion activity on the two sides of the hydrated glass membrane; hydrogen ions do not travel through the glass.",{"question":205,"answer":206},"Can I measure pH at temperatures other than 25°C?","Yes, if your meter has automatic temperature compensation (ATC) or you record the temperature and correct for it. Temperature affects the electrode's slope, so calibration buffers are defined at 25°C, but samples can be measured at other temperatures when the meter compensates. The probe's built-in temperature sensor exists for this reason.",{"question":208,"answer":209},"How should I store the electrode?","In its storage solution, usually pH 4 buffer or 3M potassium chloride. Never store it dry, because the glass bulb loses response when it dehydrates, and never store it long-term in deionized or distilled water, because pure water leaches ions out of the electrode and degrades it. If an electrode dries out, soak it overnight in storage solution before use.",{"question":211,"answer":212},"Why is my pH reading drifting and not stabilizing?","Most often the electrode, not the meter. A dirty or aging glass bulb or a clogged reference junction causes drift; clean the electrode and recalibrate, and check whether the slope has dropped below 95 percent. Very pure or poorly buffered samples also drift by nature and need gentle stirring and extra time.",[],{"slug":215,"title":216,"description":217,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":90,"createdDate":218,"lastUpdatedDate":219,"draft":46,"category":220,"image":42,"faq":221,"tags":243},"pneumocystis-jiroveci-properties-laboratory-diagnosis","Pneumocystis jirovecii: Fungus or Protozoan, Pathogenesis, and Lab Diagnosis","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Pneumocystis jirovecii \u003C\u002Fem>is an atypical fungus (once thought a protozoan) that causes pneumonia in immunocompromised patients. Learn why it was reclassified, why antifungals fail, its life cycle, and how it is diagnosed and treated.\u003C\u002Fp>","2019-12-02","2026-08-17","mycology",[222,225,228,231,234,237,240],{"question":223,"answer":224},"\u003Cp>Is \u003Cem>Pneumocystis jirovecii\u003C\u002Fem> a fungus or a protozoan?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a fungus. It was originally classified as a protozoan because of its appearance and behavior, but analysis of its DNA in 1988 showed it is a fungus, related to yeasts. It is called an atypical fungus.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":226,"answer":227},"\u003Cp>Why don't antifungal drugs work against \u003Cem>Pneumocystis?\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Its cell membrane contains cholesterol instead of ergosterol. Ergosterol is the target of azoles and amphotericin B, so without it, these antifungals are ineffective. It is treated with co-trimoxazole instead.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":229,"answer":230},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between \u003Cem>Pneumocystis jirovecii \u003C\u002Fem>and \u003Cem>Pneumocystis carinii?\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>P. jirovecii\u003C\u002Fem> is the species that infects humans. \u003Cem>P. carinii\u003C\u002Fem> is now used only for the species that infects rats. The human organism was previously called \u003Cem>P. carinii\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":232,"answer":233},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Pneumocystis \u003C\u002Fem>pneumonia diagnosed?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By staining bronchoalveolar lavage or induced sputum (silver, Giemsa, or immunofluorescence) and by PCR, which is the most sensitive method. It cannot be grown in culture, and it is not seen on Gram stain.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":235,"answer":236},"\u003Cp>Who is at risk of \u003Cem>Pneumocystis\u003C\u002Fem> pneumonia?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Immunocompromised people, especially those with advanced HIV and a CD4 count below 200, and others such as transplant recipients and patients on strong immunosuppressive drugs.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":238,"answer":239},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Pneumocystis \u003C\u002Fem>pneumonia treated and prevented?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Co-trimoxazole is used both to treat and to prevent it. Corticosteroids are added in severe cases with low blood oxygen. Prevention is started in high-risk patients, such as those with HIV and a CD4 count below 200.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":241,"answer":242},"\u003Cp>Why does \u003Cem>Pneumocystis\u003C\u002Fem> stay in the lungs?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It attaches to the alveolar lining and multiplies there. It is an extracellular organism confined to the lung and does not usually spread to other organs.\u003C\u002Fp>",[244],"fungal-diagnostics",{"enabled":246,"threads":247,"total":248},true,[],0,[250,256,263,269,274,279,285,290,296,299,305],{"slug":251,"name":90,"description":252,"image":253,"body":254,"postCount":255},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",481,{"slug":257,"name":258,"description":259,"image":260,"body":261,"postCount":262},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":264,"name":80,"description":265,"image":266,"body":267,"postCount":268},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":270,"name":187,"description":265,"image":271,"body":272,"postCount":273},"samikshya-acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":275,"name":276,"description":265,"image":42,"body":277,"postCount":278},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":280,"name":281,"description":282,"image":42,"body":283,"postCount":284},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":286,"name":287,"description":288,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":289},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":265,"image":293,"body":294,"postCount":295},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":297,"name":298,"description":288,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":289},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":300,"name":43,"description":301,"image":302,"body":303,"postCount":304},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":308,"image":309,"body":310,"postCount":289},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[312,319,325,330,335,340,344,348,352,357,361,366,370,375,380,384,388,392,397,402,406,409,413,418,422,426,430,434,439,444,448,452,456,461,465,469,473,477,481,485,489,493,497,501,505,509,512,516,521,525,529,532,536,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,571,575,578,582,586,590,594,597,601,604,607,610,613,616,619,622,625,628,631,634,637,640],{"slug":313,"name":314,"description":315,"image":316,"body":317,"postCount":318},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":42,"body":323,"postCount":324},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":326,"name":327,"description":328,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":331,"name":332,"description":333,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":341,"name":342,"description":343,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":345,"name":346,"description":347,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":324},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":349,"name":350,"description":351,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":324},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":353,"name":354,"description":355,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":358,"name":359,"description":360,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":362,"name":363,"description":364,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":365},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":367,"name":368,"description":369,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":379},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":365},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":42,"image":42,"body":387,"postCount":278},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":42,"image":42,"body":391,"postCount":374},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":396,"postCount":356},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":398,"name":399,"description":400,"image":42,"body":401,"postCount":278},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":114,"name":407,"description":408,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":410,"name":411,"description":412,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":414,"name":415,"description":416,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":417},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":423,"name":424,"description":425,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":427,"name":428,"description":429,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":431,"name":432,"description":433,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":435,"name":436,"description":437,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":449,"name":450,"description":451,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":453,"name":454,"description":455,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":457,"name":458,"description":459,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":460},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":462,"name":463,"description":464,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":466,"name":467,"description":468,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":470,"name":471,"description":472,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":474,"name":475,"description":476,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":478,"name":479,"description":480,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":482,"name":483,"description":484,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":486,"name":487,"description":488,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":490,"name":491,"description":492,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":494,"name":495,"description":496,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":500},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":502,"name":503,"description":504,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":506,"name":507,"description":508,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":324},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":244,"name":510,"description":511,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":515,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":517,"name":518,"description":519,"image":42,"body":520,"postCount":278},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":522,"name":523,"description":524,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":526,"name":527,"description":528,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":181,"name":530,"description":531,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":533,"name":534,"description":535,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":289},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":129,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":374},"Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":365},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":329},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":550,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":500},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":572,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":182,"name":576,"description":577,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":579,"name":580,"description":581,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":583,"name":584,"description":585,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":587,"name":588,"description":589,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":593,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":595,"name":596,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":289},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":598,"name":599,"description":600,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":602,"name":603,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":500},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":605,"name":606,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":614,"name":615,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":278},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":617,"name":618,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":500},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":620,"name":621,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":500},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":626,"name":627,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":629,"name":630,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":438},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":632,"name":633,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":334},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":635,"name":636,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":638,"name":639,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":500},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":641,"name":642,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]