[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fEHGW0Iqw0ZSZKYP6VYy5cRS5ZZFHQlGk0rhdGPIJ3Nk":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":247,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":310},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":64,"related":65,"comments":243},"flow-cytometry-principle-procedure-interpretation","Flow Cytometry: Principle, Procedure, and Interpretation","\u003Cp>How flow cytometry counts and identifies cells using light scatter and fluorescence, how to read a dot plot and gating, and how the CD4 count is measured.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-31",false,"lab-equipment","A person living with HIV needs to know how much of their immune system is left. The answer comes as a single number, the CD4 count, and that number is produced by a machine that reads thousands of cells one at a time as they file past a laser. Understanding how it decides which cell is a CD4 T cell is what lets you trust the count that guides their treatment.\n\n## What flow cytometry does\n\nFlow cytometry is a method that measures the physical and molecular features of individual cells as they flow one by one past a laser beam. Instead of looking at cells as a group, it examines each cell separately and very fast, often thousands per second, and records several features of every cell at once: its size, its internal complexity, and which specific molecules it carries on its surface or inside it.\n\nFrom those per-cell measurements, the instrument builds a picture of the whole sample: how many cells of each type are present, and what proportion carry a particular marker. This is what makes it the standard method for counting CD4 T cells in HIV and for immunophenotyping in the diagnosis and classification of leukemias and lymphomas.\n\n## The principle\n\nThree systems work together. Understanding them in order is the whole method.\n\n**Fluidics: cells in single file.** The sample is injected into a fast-moving stream of fluid (sheath fluid) that narrows it so tightly that cells are forced to pass the laser one at a time, in single file. This is called hydrodynamic focusing. Reading cells one at a time is what allows the instrument to assign every measurement to a single cell.\n\n**Optics: the laser and the signals.** As each cell crosses the laser, it interacts with the light in ways that reveal what it is. Two kinds of signal are collected.\n\nThe first is light scatter, which needs no stain and reports the cell's physical shape:\n\n- Forward scatter (FSC), light scattered slightly forward along the beam, is proportional to cell size. Bigger cell, more forward scatter.\n- Side scatter (SSC), light scattered at about 90 degrees, reports internal complexity or granularity. A granulocyte, full of granules, scatters more to the side than a smooth lymphocyte.\n\nTogether, forward and side scatter alone can separate the main white cell populations: lymphocytes (small, low granularity), monocytes (medium), and granulocytes (larger, highly granular).\n\nThe second signal is fluorescence, which reports specific molecules. The cells are first stained with antibodies that are each tied to a fluorescent dye (a fluorochrome) and each directed against a specific marker, such as CD4 or CD8. When a labeled cell crosses the laser, its fluorochromes are excited and emit light of characteristic colors. Detectors measure each color separately, so the instrument can tell, cell by cell, which markers that cell carries. Using several fluorochromes at once, it can measure many markers on the same cell simultaneously.\n\n**Electronics: signals into numbers.** Detectors convert each light signal into a voltage pulse proportional to its intensity, and the instrument records, for every cell, a set of values: its forward scatter, side scatter, and the intensity of each fluorescence color. Those recorded values are what the analysis then works from.\n\n## Reading the result: scatter plots, dot plots, and gating\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fflow-cytometry-scatter-and-dotplot.svg\" alt=\"Two-panel flow cytometry plot. Left: forward scatter versus side scatter separating lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes, with a gate around the lymphocytes. Right: CD4 versus CD8 dot plot with the CD4-positive, CD8-negative quadrant marked as the CD4 T cells\" width=\"288\" height=\"150\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>Two-panel flow cytometry plot. Left: forward scatter versus side scatter separating lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes, with a gate around the lymphocytes. Right: CD4 versus CD8 dot plot with the CD4-positive, CD8-negative quadrant marked as the CD4 T cells\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n**The scatter plot separates populations.** The first plot is usually forward scatter against side scatter. Each dot is one cell, placed by its size (x) and granularity (y). Because the main leukocyte types differ in both, they form separate clouds: lymphocytes in one corner, monocytes in another, granulocytes in a third. Reading this plot means recognizing which cloud is which.\n\n**Gating selects the cells you care about.** A gate is a boundary the analyst draws around one population to study only those cells. To count CD4 T cells, you first gate on the lymphocyte cloud, so that everything measured next comes only from lymphocytes and not from monocytes or debris. Gating is the single most important interpretive step, because every result after it depends on which cells were included. A gate drawn wrong gives a wrong answer even when the machine worked perfectly.\n\n**The dot plot reads the markers.** Within the gated lymphocytes, a second plot shows two markers against each other, for example CD4 on one axis and CD8 on the other. This divides the plot into quadrants: cells positive for CD4 only, positive for CD8 only, positive for both, or negative for both. The CD4 T-cell population sits in the CD4-positive, CD8-negative quadrant. The instrument counts what fraction of gated lymphocytes fall there, and from that and the total lymphocyte count it reports the absolute CD4 count.\n\n**Histograms for a single marker.** When only one marker matters, the result is often shown as a histogram: marker intensity on the x-axis, number of cells on the y-axis, with a peak for negative cells and a separate peak for positive cells. The position of a cell relative to those peaks decides whether it is called positive.\n\n## Interpretation in practice: the CD4 count\n\nThe instrument reports two related numbers: the CD4 percentage (what fraction of lymphocytes are CD4 T cells) and the absolute CD4 count (cells per microliter of blood). The absolute count is what guides clinical decisions in HIV, and it depends on both the percentage from the dot plot and an accurate total lymphocyte count.\n\nTwo interpretive cautions follow. First, the gate must be correct: if monocytes or debris are wrongly included in the lymphocyte gate, the CD4 percentage is distorted. Second, the absolute count depends on the blood count it is calculated against, so a flow result is only as good as the cell count feeding it. A CD4 result that does not fit the clinical picture is a reason to check the gating and the paired blood count, not to accept the number blindly.\n\n### Applications beyond CD4\n\nFlow cytometry is also the standard method for immunophenotyping in leukemia and lymphoma, where the pattern of markers on the abnormal cells classifies the disease. It is used to enumerate lymphocyte subsets, to detect specific cell populations in a range of immune and hematologic conditions, and, in cell sorting instruments (fluorescence-activated cell sorting, FACS), to physically separate a chosen population for further study.\n\n## Limitations\n\nFlow cytometry requires a single-cell suspension, so it suits blood, bone marrow, and fluids better than solid tissue, which must be disaggregated first. Results depend heavily on correct gating and on the quality of antibody staining, both of which are operator-dependent.\n\nThe instruments are expensive and need trained staff, calibration, and compensation setup when multiple fluorochromes overlap in color. It reports what markers a cell carries, not directly what disease is present, so results are interpreted within the clinical and diagnostic context.\n\n## How to remember\n\nAnchor on the three signals, because they map onto the three things the method reports:\n\n- **Forward scatter = size. Side scatter = granularity (internal complexity). Fluorescence = markers.** Size and granularity alone sort the main white cells; fluorescence names them.\n- **Gate first, read second.** Every result depends on which cells you drew the gate around. Wrong gate, wrong answer, working machine.\n- **CD4 lives in the CD4-positive, CD8-negative quadrant** of the dot plot, inside the lymphocyte gate.\n\nFor the scatter pairing: a granulocyte is big and grainy (high FSC, high SSC); a lymphocyte is small and smooth (low FSC, low SSC). Picture the cell and the plot places itself.\n\n## Key exam facts\n\n| Fact | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| What it measures | Physical and molecular features of single cells passing a laser |\n| Fluidics principle | Hydrodynamic focusing; cells pass in single file |\n| Forward scatter (FSC) | Proportional to cell size |\n| Side scatter (SSC) | Proportional to internal complexity\u002Fgranularity |\n| Fluorescence | Reports specific markers via fluorochrome-tagged antibodies |\n| Gating | Selecting one population for analysis; the key interpretive step |\n| Dot plot | Two markers on two axes, divided into quadrants |\n| CD4 T cells | CD4-positive, CD8-negative quadrant, within the lymphocyte gate |\n| Main outputs for CD4 | CD4 percentage and absolute CD4 count (cells\u002FµL) |\n| Key applications | CD4 counting in HIV; immunophenotyping of leukemia\u002Flymphoma; cell sorting (FACS) |\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n**\"Forward and side scatter are two ways of measuring the same thing.\"** No. Forward scatter reports size; side scatter reports internal granularity. They are different physical properties, and using both together is what separates the white cell types before any staining.\n\n**\"The machine decides which cells are CD4 automatically.\"** The instrument measures every cell, but the analyst sets the gate that defines which cells are counted. The CD4 result depends on that gate. Gating wrong gives a wrong count even when the instrument is working perfectly.\n\n**\"CD4 percentage and absolute CD4 count are the same number.\"** They are related but different. The percentage is the fraction of lymphocytes that are CD4 T cells; the absolute count is cells per microliter, calculated using the total lymphocyte count. Clinical decisions in HIV use the absolute count.\n\n**\"Flow cytometry diagnoses the disease.\"** It reports which markers cells carry. That pattern is interpreted within the clinical and diagnostic picture. In leukemia\u002Flymphoma it classifies; it does not stand alone as the whole diagnosis.\n\n**\"A dot plot and a histogram show different tests.\"** They show the same kind of data differently. A histogram displays one marker (intensity vs. cell number); a dot plot displays two markers at once (one per axis). Which is used depends on how many markers are being read.\n\n## References\n\n1. Tille PM. *Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology.* 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.\n2. Procop GW, et al. *Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology.* 7th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2017.\n3. Leber AL, editor. *Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook.* 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016. doi:10.1128\u002F9781683670438.CMPH",[49,52,55,58,61],{"question":50,"answer":51},"\u003Cp>What is flow cytometry used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It measures features of individual cells as they pass a laser, one at a time. In clinical practice its main uses are counting CD4 T cells in HIV, immunophenotyping leukemias and lymphomas by their marker patterns, and enumerating lymphocyte subsets. Cell-sorting instruments (FACS) can also physically separate a chosen cell population.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":53,"answer":54},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between forward scatter and side scatter?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Forward scatter reflects cell size: larger cells scatter more light forward. Side scatter reflects internal complexity or granularity: cells with many granules scatter more light to the side. Used together, they separate lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes before any antibody staining.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":56,"answer":57},"\u003Cp>What is gating in flow cytometry?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Gating is drawing a boundary around one cell population so that only those cells are analyzed further. For a CD4 count, the lymphocytes are gated first, so the marker analysis applies only to lymphocytes. Gating is the most important interpretive step, because every downstream result depends on which cells were included.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":59,"answer":60},"\u003Cp>How does flow cytometry measure the CD4 count?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Lymphocytes are gated on a scatter plot, then a dot plot of CD4 against CD8 identifies the CD4-positive, CD8-negative cells. The instrument reports the CD4 percentage and, using the total lymphocyte count, the absolute CD4 count in cells per microliter. The absolute count is what guides HIV treatment decisions.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":62,"answer":63},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a histogram and a dot plot?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A histogram shows one marker at a time, plotting its intensity against the number of cells, with separate peaks for negative and positive cells. A dot plot shows two markers at once, one on each axis, dividing the plot into quadrants. Both display the same underlying per-cell data.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[66,93,120,140,149,158,182,204],{"slug":67,"title":68,"description":69,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":70,"lastUpdatedDate":71,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":72,"tags":91},"immunochromatography-principle-application","Immunochromatography (Lateral Flow Immunoassay): Principle, Procedure, and Uses","\u003Cp>Immunochromatography (lateral flow immunoassay): how the sandwich and competitive principles work, how to read positive and negative results, and key uses.\u003C\u002Fp>","2020-03-25","2026-08-21",[73,76,79,82,85,88],{"question":74,"answer":75},"\u003Cp>What is an immunochromatographic test?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a rapid, strip-based test that uses antibodies to detect a specific antigen, antibody, or hormone in a sample, showing the result as a colored line. It is the same technology as the home pregnancy test and the COVID-19 rapid antigen test.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":77,"answer":78},"\u003Cp>Is immunochromatography the same as a lateral flow immunoassay?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. \"Immunochromatography,\" \"lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA),\" \"lateral flow assay,\" \"immunochromatographic test (ICT),\" and \"rapid strip test\" all refer to the same method.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":80,"answer":81},"\u003Cp>What is the immunochromatographic test used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Detecting pregnancy (hCG), diagnosing infections such as malaria, HIV, COVID-19, and dengue, screening for drugs of abuse, checking cardiac markers, and testing food and the environment for contaminants.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":83,"answer":84},"\u003Cp>What does a positive immunochromatographic test look like?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In the common sandwich format, a positive result shows two lines, the control line and the test line. In the competitive format (used for small molecules like drugs), a positive result shows only the control line and no test line.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":86,"answer":87},"\u003Cp>Why must the control line always appear?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The control line proves the test actually worked, that the sample flowed correctly and the reagents are still active. If the control line does not appear, the result is \u003Cstrong>invalid\u003C\u002Fstrong> and the test must be repeated, no matter what the test line shows.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":89,"answer":90},"\u003Cp>How accurate are these tests?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They are quick and convenient but less sensitive than lab tests like ELISA or PCR, so a negative result does not always rule out low levels of the target. Important results are often confirmed in a laboratory.\u003C\u002Fp>",[92],"chromatography",{"slug":94,"title":95,"description":96,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":97,"createdDate":98,"lastUpdatedDate":99,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":100,"tags":119},"electroporator-principle-parts-and-uses","Electroporator: How Electrical Pulses Open Cell Membranes, Principle, Parts, and Uses","How an electroporator uses a brief high-voltage pulse to open transient pores in the cell membrane so DNA can enter, the difference between reversible electroporation for transformation and irreversible electroporation for tissue ablation, its parts, and its uses.","Ashma Shrestha","2023-09-19","2026-08-01",[101,104,107,110,113,116],{"question":102,"answer":103},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of an electroporator?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It applies a brief, high-voltage electrical pulse to a cell suspension. The pulse raises the voltage across the cell membrane past a threshold, which forms transient pores in the lipid bilayer. While the pores are open, DNA or other molecules enter the cell. If the pulse is within the survivable range, the pores reseal and the cell lives, now carrying the introduced material.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":105,"answer":106},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between reversible and irreversible electroporation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In reversible electroporation the pores reseal after the pulse and the cell survives, which is the goal of transformation and transfection. In irreversible electroporation the pulse is strong enough that the pores do not reseal and the cell dies. Irreversible electroporation is used deliberately in medicine to ablate tumors without heat.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":108,"answer":109},"\u003Cp>Why did my electroporation kill the cells?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Most often the pulse was too strong or too long, pushing the membrane past the reversible threshold into irreversible electroporation. Arcing from high-salt samples or air bubbles also kills cells. Lowering the field strength and washing cells into low-salt medium usually fixes it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":111,"answer":112},"\u003Cp>Why does the electrode gap of the cuvette matter?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because the cell responds to field strength, which is the voltage divided by the gap between the electrodes. The same voltage gives a stronger field in a 1 mm cuvette than in a 4 mm one. Using the wrong gap for a protocol changes the actual field the cells experience.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":114,"answer":115},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between exponential-decay and square-wave electroporators?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An exponential-decay electroporator discharges a capacitor, so the voltage starts high and falls exponentially; it is standard for bacteria and yeast. A square-wave electroporator holds the voltage constant for a set time then stops; it is gentler and better for fragile mammalian cells.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":117,"answer":118},"\u003Cp>Is electroporation better than chemical (heat-shock) transformation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Electroporation is usually more efficient and works with a wide range of cells, but it needs specialized equipment and low-salt samples to avoid arcing. Chemical transformation is simpler and needs no instrument but is generally less efficient. The choice depends on the cell type, the efficiency needed, and the equipment available.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":121,"title":122,"description":123,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":124,"createdDate":125,"lastUpdatedDate":71,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":126,"tags":139},"ultrasonication-principle-parts-and-application","Ultrasonication: How Cavitation Breaks Open Cells (Principle, Parts, Uses)","How ultrasonication works: sound waves create and collapse tiny bubbles (cavitation) whose implosion tears cells open. Its parts, uses in cell lysis, and why you must keep the sample cold.","Samikshya Acharya","2023-06-18",[127,130,133,136],{"question":128,"answer":129},"\u003Cp>What is the principle of ultrasonication?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Ultrasonication uses high-frequency sound waves (20 kHz and above) to create tiny bubbles in a liquid, a process called acoustic cavitation. These bubbles grow and then violently implode, and the shear forces from their collapse tear cells and particles apart. It is the imploding bubbles, not the sound directly, that do the work.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":131,"answer":132},"\u003Cp>What is cavitation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Cavitation is the formation and collapse of tiny vapor bubbles caused by the pressure changes of a sound wave in a liquid. The low-pressure phase of the wave forms the bubbles, and the high-pressure phase implodes them, releasing intense local shear forces and heat.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":134,"answer":135},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a probe and a bath sonicator?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A probe (horn) sonicator dips directly into the sample and delivers intense, focused energy for fast cell lysis, but it heats the sample quickly and handles one tube at a time. A bath sonicator passes ultrasound through a water bath, which is gentler and processes several tubes at once without contact, better for degassing, cleaning, and mild disruption.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":137,"answer":138},"\u003Cp>What is ultrasonication used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Its main laboratory use is cell lysis, rupturing cells to release proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids for extraction. It is also used for degassing liquids, mixing and dispersing particles, preparing nanoparticles, and cleaning instruments.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":141,"title":142,"description":143,"seoTitle":142,"seoDescription":144,"author":97,"createdDate":145,"lastUpdatedDate":146,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":147,"tags":148},"microtome-parts-types-and-uses","Microtome: Parts, Sectioning Steps, Types, and Common Errors","Microtome parts and types, and the part that decides a usable slide: how to cut a section at 3 to 5 micrometers and fix the common faults like chatter, compression, and alternating thick-thin sections.","Identify key microtome parts, compare rotary, sliding, freezing, and ultramicrotome designs, and prevent section compression, chatter, and folds.","2023-04-12","2026-08-22",[],[],{"slug":150,"title":151,"description":152,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":97,"createdDate":153,"lastUpdatedDate":154,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":155,"tags":156},"equipment-required-for-chemistry-laboratory","Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus: Names, Uses, and How Each One Works","\u003Cp>Every common chemistry lab apparatus explained by what it does and why, from Bunsen burner and burette to water trough, beehive shelf, and Kipp's apparatus, with the uses students are actually asked about.\u003C\u002Fp>","2023-03-31","2026-08-20",[],[157],"laboratory-glassware",{"slug":159,"title":160,"description":161,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":124,"createdDate":162,"lastUpdatedDate":163,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":164,"tags":180},"hot-plate-parts-types-and-applications","Hot Plate: Parts, Types, Uses, and Hot Plate vs. Bunsen Burner and Stirrer","How a laboratory hot plate works, its parts and types, when to use a hot plate versus a Bunsen burner, magnetic stirrer, or water bath, and the mistakes that scorch media and crack glassware.","2023-03-27","2026-07-30",[165,168,171,174,177],{"question":166,"answer":167},"\u003Cp>What is a hot plate used for in a microbiology laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A hot plate is used mainly to prepare and melt culture media and to warm reagents. With a built-in magnetic stirrer, it also dissolves solutes evenly into buffers and solutions while heating them.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":169,"answer":170},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a hot plate and a hot plate stirrer?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A plain hot plate only heats the sample. A hot plate stirrer adds an electromagnet beneath the surface that spins a magnetic stir bar in the solution, so the sample is heated and mixed at the same time. For media and buffer preparation, the stirrer version is usually preferred.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":172,"answer":173},"\u003Cp>When should I use a water bath instead of a hot plate?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Use a water bath when a sample needs gentle, even heating at a precise temperature, such as holding serum or reagents at 37°C or 56°C. A hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat that can scorch or overshoot, so it is the wrong tool for heat-sensitive work.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":175,"answer":176},"\u003Cp>Why should flammable solvents not be heated on a hot plate?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A hot plate surface can reach about 350°C, which is well above the flash point of common solvents like ether, acetone, and hexane. Heating these on an open hot plate can ignite them, so they are heated by other means such as a water bath in a fume hood.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":178,"answer":179},"\u003Cp>Why does my agar scorch on the hot plate?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Scorching happens when the heat is set too high and the media is not stirred. Because a hot plate heats from the bottom by direct contact, the layer touching the plate burns before the rest melts. Use moderate heat with stirring, or melt agar in a water bath or by autoclaving.\u003C\u002Fp>",[181],"laboratory-heating-equipment",{"slug":183,"title":184,"description":185,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":97,"createdDate":186,"lastUpdatedDate":163,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":187,"tags":203},"test-tube-types-uses-and-importance","Test Tube: Types, Sizes, Uses, and How It Differs From Other Lab Tubes","Test tube types, sizes, and uses, how to tell a test tube apart from culture, centrifuge, Durham, and blood collection tubes, and what the Durham tube detects. A practical guide for laboratory students.","2023-03-22",[188,191,194,197,200],{"question":189,"answer":190},"\u003Cp>What is the standard size of a test tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The standard laboratory test tube is about 18 mm × 150 mm. Sizes range from small tubes around 13 × 100 mm to large tubes around 20 × 150 mm, plus the very small Durham tube used for gas detection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":192,"answer":193},"\u003Cp>What is a Durham tube used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A Durham tube is a small tube placed upside down inside a larger tube of fermentation broth. It traps any gas the organism produces, which appears as a visible bubble at its closed top and is read as a positive test for gas production.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":195,"answer":196},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a test tube and a centrifuge tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A test tube has a rounded bottom and is used for holding, mixing, and heating. A centrifuge tube has a tapered, conical bottom so that spun-down material collects at the tip, and it is built to withstand the forces of centrifugation.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":198,"answer":199},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a test tube and a culture tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A culture tube is essentially a test tube fitted with a cap and used specifically to grow microorganisms in broth or on agar slants without contamination. A plain test tube is the general-purpose version used for reactions and holding samples.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":201,"answer":202},"\u003Cp>Should I use a glass or plastic test tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Use reusable borosilicate glass when the tube will be heated or autoclaved, since it withstands heat and chemicals. Use disposable plastic tubes for routine work where avoiding cross-contamination and cost matter more than heat resistance.\u003C\u002Fp>",[157],{"slug":205,"title":206,"description":207,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":124,"createdDate":208,"lastUpdatedDate":209,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":210,"tags":241},"polyacrylamide-gel-electrophoresis-page","Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE): Principle and Procedure","Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) separates proteins by size. Learn why SDS is added, why the gel has a stacking and a resolving layer, how to choose the acrylamide percentage, and how SDS-PAGE underpins the Western blot.","2023-03-19","2026-07-11",[211,214,217,220,223,226,229,232,235,238],{"question":212,"answer":213},"Why is SDS added in SDS-PAGE?","SDS is an anionic detergent that unfolds the protein and binds along the polypeptide chain at a roughly constant ratio of about one SDS molecule per two amino acid residues. This gives every protein a negative charge proportional to its length, so that charge per unit mass becomes the same for all proteins. With the charge variable removed, migration depends on size alone, and the distance a band travels can be read directly as a molecular weight.",{"question":215,"answer":216},"Why does an SDS-PAGE gel have two layers?","The upper stacking gel (pH 6.8, large pores) does no separating. Its job is to compress proteins scattered throughout the depth of the loading well into a single thin disc, using a discontinuous buffer system in which slow-moving glycine trails and fast-moving chloride leads, sandwiching the proteins between them. When the disc reaches the lower resolving gel (pH 8.8, small pores), glycine ionizes and overtakes, the sandwich collapses, and all proteins begin separating from the same starting line. Without a stacking gel, every band would be a smear.",{"question":218,"answer":219},"What is the difference between native PAGE and SDS-PAGE?","SDS-PAGE denatures the protein with SDS and a reducing agent, so separation is by size alone and the protein is no longer functional. Native PAGE uses neither, so the protein retains its fold, subunits, and intrinsic charge, and separation depends on charge, size, and shape together. Use SDS-PAGE to measure the size of a polypeptide chain, and native PAGE to study a protein that must remain active or intact.",{"question":221,"answer":222},"How do I choose the acrylamide percentage?","Match the pore size to the size of your target. A low-percentage gel (4 to 8%) has large pores and resolves large proteins, while small proteins run straight through. A high-percentage gel (12 to 20%) has small pores that resolve small proteins sharply while large proteins barely enter the gel. Higher percentage does not mean better resolution in general; it means better resolution of smaller molecules.",{"question":224,"answer":225},"Which direction do proteins move in SDS-PAGE, and why?","Toward the anode, the positive electrode. SDS coats every protein with a strong negative charge, so all proteins become anions and are attracted to the positive electrode. This is why SDS-PAGE gels are run vertically with the anode at the bottom.",{"question":227,"answer":228},"What is the role of β-mercaptoethanol, and how is it different from SDS?","They denature different things. SDS unfolds the polypeptide chain and coats it with charge, but it cannot break covalent disulfide bonds. β-mercaptoethanol is a reducing agent that cleaves those bonds, separating proteins into their individual polypeptide chains. Immunoglobulin G, for example, runs as a single band of about 150 kDa without a reducing agent, and splits into heavy chains of about 50 kDa and light chains of about 25 kDa when β-mercaptoethanol is added.",{"question":230,"answer":231},"What do APS and TEMED do?","Ammonium persulfate (APS) is the free-radical initiator that starts acrylamide polymerization, and TEMED is the catalyst that accelerates radical formation from APS. Both are added immediately before the gel is poured, because polymerization begins as soon as they are mixed in. Oxygen inhibits polymerization, which is why water-saturated isobutanol is layered over the resolving gel to exclude air.",{"question":233,"answer":234},"Is polyacrylamide gel toxic?","Unpolymerized acrylamide monomer is a potent neurotoxin and a probable human carcinogen, and it is absorbed through the skin, so the powder and the unset gel solution must be handled with gloves. Once polymerized, the gel itself is far less hazardous, but it may contain traces of residual monomer, so gloves are worn when handling gels as well.",{"question":236,"answer":237},"What is the tracking dye in SDS-PAGE?","Bromophenol blue, not bromothymol blue. It is a small, fast-migrating dye that runs ahead of nearly all proteins, marking the dye front. It does not stain the proteins. When the dye front approaches the bottom of the gel, the run is stopped so that the smallest proteins do not run off the end.",{"question":239,"answer":240},"How is SDS-PAGE related to the Western blot?","SDS-PAGE is the first step of a Western blot. Proteins are separated by molecular weight on the gel, transferred to a membrane, and then probed with antibodies. Because separation is by size alone, the position of a band on the membrane identifies the protein. This is why HIV proteins carry names such as p24, gp41, and gp120: the numbers are the molecular weights in kilodaltons at which those proteins resolve.",[242],"electrophoresis",{"enabled":244,"threads":245,"total":246},true,[],0,[248,254,260,267,272,277,283,288,294,297,304],{"slug":249,"name":43,"description":250,"image":251,"body":252,"postCount":253},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",491,{"slug":255,"name":97,"description":256,"image":257,"body":258,"postCount":259},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":261,"name":262,"description":263,"image":264,"body":265,"postCount":266},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":268,"name":124,"description":263,"image":269,"body":270,"postCount":271},"samikshya-acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":273,"name":274,"description":263,"image":42,"body":275,"postCount":276},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":278,"name":279,"description":280,"image":42,"body":281,"postCount":282},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":284,"name":285,"description":286,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":289,"name":290,"description":263,"image":291,"body":292,"postCount":293},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":295,"name":296,"description":286,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":301,"body":302,"postCount":303},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",55,{"slug":305,"name":306,"description":307,"image":308,"body":309,"postCount":287},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[311,318,324,329,334,339,343,347,351,356,360,365,369,374,379,384,388,391,395,400,404,408,412,416,420,424,428,432,437,442,446,450,454,459,463,467,471,475,479,483,487,491,495,499,503,507,511,515,519,522,526,530,534,538,542,546,550,554,558,562,566,570,574,578,582,586,590,594,597,601,604,607,610,613,616,619,622,625,628,631,634,637,640],{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":315,"body":316,"postCount":317},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":319,"name":320,"description":321,"image":42,"body":322,"postCount":323},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":327,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":330,"name":331,"description":332,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":335,"name":336,"description":337,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":338},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":340,"name":341,"description":342,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":344,"name":345,"description":346,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":352,"name":353,"description":354,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":357,"name":358,"description":359,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":317},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":361,"name":362,"description":363,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":364},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",22,{"slug":366,"name":367,"description":368,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":317},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":370,"name":371,"description":372,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":373},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":375,"name":376,"description":377,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":380,"name":381,"description":382,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":383},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",21,{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":42,"image":42,"body":387,"postCount":276},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":92,"name":389,"description":42,"image":42,"body":390,"postCount":373},"Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":242,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":394,"postCount":355},"Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":396,"name":397,"description":398,"image":42,"body":399,"postCount":276},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":401,"name":402,"description":403,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":405,"name":406,"description":407,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":409,"name":410,"description":411,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":413,"name":414,"description":415,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":383},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":423,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":425,"name":426,"description":427,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":436},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":438,"name":439,"description":440,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":443,"name":444,"description":445,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":373},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":458},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":373},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":474,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":436},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":476,"name":477,"description":478,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":480,"name":481,"description":482,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":484,"name":485,"description":486,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":488,"name":489,"description":490,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":494,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":496,"name":497,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":498},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":500,"name":501,"description":502,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":504,"name":505,"description":506,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":508,"name":509,"description":510,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":317},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":512,"name":513,"description":514,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":181,"name":516,"description":517,"image":42,"body":518,"postCount":276},"Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":157,"name":520,"description":521,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":523,"name":524,"description":525,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":282},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":527,"name":528,"description":529,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":338},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":531,"name":532,"description":533,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":535,"name":536,"description":537,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":373},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":539,"name":540,"description":541,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":383},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":543,"name":544,"description":545,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":328},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":547,"name":548,"description":549,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":551,"name":552,"description":553,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":555,"name":556,"description":557,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":338},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":559,"name":560,"description":561,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":498},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":563,"name":564,"description":565,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":567,"name":568,"description":569,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":571,"name":572,"description":573,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":575,"name":576,"description":577,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":579,"name":580,"description":581,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":338},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":583,"name":584,"description":585,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":587,"name":588,"description":589,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":593,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":595,"name":596,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":287},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":598,"name":599,"description":600,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":602,"name":603,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":498},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":605,"name":606,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":614,"name":615,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":617,"name":618,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":498},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":620,"name":621,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":498},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":626,"name":627,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":629,"name":630,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":436},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":632,"name":633,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":333},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":635,"name":636,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":638,"name":639,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":498},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":641,"name":642,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]