[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$f6goe68smpZyMdTKd-3ZnnY1FHnghX3exA11qb3Xnil8":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":213,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":276},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":50,"related":52,"comments":209},"equipment-required-for-chemistry-laboratory","Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus: Names, Uses, and How Each One Works","\u003Cp>Every common chemistry lab apparatus explained by what it does and why, from Bunsen burner and burette to water trough, beehive shelf, and Kipp's apparatus, with the uses students are actually asked about.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Ashma Shrestha","2023-03-31","2026-08-20",false,"lab-equipment","Ask a student to name the apparatus in a gas-preparation setup and most can: Woulfe's bottle, thistle funnel, delivery tube, beehive shelf, gas jar, water trough. Ask them why the thistle funnel's stem must dip below the liquid surface, or why the beehive shelf sits inside the water trough rather than beside it, and the naming falls apart.\n\nKnowing an apparatus is not the same as knowing what it does. A list of names is what a search engine can answer in a sentence. What actually helps at the bench, and what an exam question tests, is function: what each piece is for, why it is shaped the way it is, and what goes wrong when it is used incorrectly.\n\nThis guide names each apparatus and then does the part that matters: explains what it does and where students go wrong with it.\n\nA chemistry laboratory runs on a standard set of apparatus, and most of it falls into three groups: general-purpose equipment used in almost every experiment, glassware, and special-purpose apparatus needed only for particular procedures such as titration, gas preparation, and distillation.\n\nThis guide covers each piece by what it does, not just what it is called. For most items that means the function, the reason for its design, and the point where students most often use it wrongly.\n\nFor the microbiology laboratory, which shares some equipment but adds sterilization, culture, and identification instruments, see [Equipment Essential for the Microbiology Laboratory](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fequipment-essential-for-microbiology-laboratory\u002F).\n\n## Chemistry Apparatus at a Glance: What Each One Does\n\n| Apparatus | Primary function |\n| --- | --- |\n| Bunsen burner | Produces a controlled flame for heating |\n| Tripod stand | Supports glassware over the burner |\n| Wire gauze | Spreads heat evenly under flat-bottomed glassware |\n| Tongs | Holds hot beakers, flasks, and crucibles |\n| Test tube holder | Holds a test tube during heating |\n| Test tube rack | Holds test tubes upright for storage and transfer |\n| Desiccator | Dries and stores moisture-sensitive substances |\n| Spatula | Transfers and scrapes solid or powder samples |\n| Mortar and pestle | Grinds solids to a fine powder |\n| Watch glass | Holds small samples; covers beakers; evaporates liquids |\n| Beaker | Holds, mixes, and heats liquids (not for accurate volume) |\n| Conical (Erlenmeyer) flask | Holds and swirls liquids; the receiving flask in titration |\n| Round-bottom flask | Heating and distillation; even heating over a flame |\n| Volumetric flask | Prepares an accurate volume of solution to the mark |\n| Graduated (measuring) cylinder | Measures liquid volume approximately |\n| Burette | Delivers a measured, variable volume in titration |\n| Pipette | Delivers a fixed or measured volume accurately |\n| Funnel | Directs liquids and holds filter paper for filtration |\n| Thistle funnel | Adds liquid reagent into a sealed gas-generating bottle |\n| Delivery tube | Carries generated gas from the reaction vessel |\n| Woulfe's bottle | Reaction vessel for gas preparation |\n| Beehive shelf | Positions the gas jar for collection over water |\n| Water trough | Holds water for collecting gas over water |\n| Gas jar | Collects and stores the prepared gas |\n| Kipp's apparatus | Generates gas on demand, stopping when not needed |\n| Retort \u002F condenser | Condenses vapor in distillation |\n| Crucible | Holds a solid for strong heating or ignition |\n\nThe sections below take the most important of these and explain how each works and where students go wrong.\n\n### Bunsen burner\n\n![working principle of BunsenBurner](\u002Fblogs\u002FA-schematic-of-a-Bunsen-burner.png)Figure: Working principle of Bunsen Burner\n\nIt is the laboratory equipment useful for heating materials. The burner produces a single open flame with the use of gas. The gas is either natural, like methane, or petroleum, like propane and butane. In chemistry laboratories, it helps to perform heating experiments like evaporation.\n\n[Read more about Bunsen burner here](\u002Fbunsen-burner-parts-principle-and-applications\u002F)\n\n### Tripod Stand\n\nThe material used for its construction is iron. Its purpose is to hold glassware during heating. The top part of the equipment can either be triangular or circle shaped. It is the part that holds the wire mesh gauge and glassware for heating. As the name suggests, the base of this laboratory equipment has three legs.\n\n### Wire mesh gauge\n\nThe material of the gauge is metal wires like iron, nichrome, or steel. The gauge is placed on top of a tripod for using a bunsen burner. It helps provide even heating while using glassware with a flat bottom surface. Some wire mesh gauge has a ceramic center, which helps in protecting the glass from breakage due to heat and provides much more heating.\n\n### Tongs\n\nThese hold hot equipment like beakers, flasks, and crucibles after or during experiments. The shape of this equipment is like scissors. There are different types of tongs based on their purpose. Beaker tongs have rubber for easy gripping. Flask tongs have rounded ends for easy holding.\n\n### Test tube holder and rack\n\nThe holder helps in handling test tubes while heating or using harmful chemicals. One should only use test tubes with holders if they are dealing with acids and bases to avoid accidents in the laboratory.\n\nThe purpose of a test tube rack is to place the test tube upright. The stand helps in storing and transferring multiple test tubes at a time. The materials used for construction of the rack are metal, plastic, or wood. It comes in various sizes and shapes. The stand commonly used in chemistry laboratories is the classic type with 8-10 holes for test tubes.\n\n### Desiccator\n\nThe use of laboratory equipment is for drying wet substances. It is also applicable for storing moisture-sensitive substances. The equipment is used under vacuum pressure. There are various types of desiccators. It can be either manual or automated.\n\nIn chemistry laboratories, desiccators help store some chemicals and compounds sensitive to water, like sodium.\n\n[Read more about desiccators here](\u002Fdesiccator-working-mechanism-types-and-uses\u002F).\n\n### Centrifuge\n\n![centrifuges](\u002Fblogs\u002Fcentrifuge-1.png)Figure: centrifuges\n\nIt is a piece of laboratory equipment useful to separate components of a mixture based on size, density, viscosity, and motor speed. The separation occurs due to the centrifugal force in the rotor where a sample is placed. There are different types of centrifuges benchtops, ultracentrifuges, high-speed, low-speed, and refrigerated centrifuges.\n\n[Read more about centrifuges here](\u002Fcentrifuge-parts-types-handling\u002F).\n\n### Blotting and filter paper\n\n**Filter paper** is a cellulose paper used to separate solids from liquids during filtration. Folded into a funnel, it retains the solid residue while the liquid passes through. In quantitative work, ashless filter paper is used so it burns away cleanly when the residue is weighed.\n\n**Blotting paper** is a thicker absorbent paper used to soak up excess liquid. (Note that the transfer membranes used in Western blotting are made of nitrocellulose or PVDF, not ordinary blotting paper; the two are often confused because of the shared name.)\n\n### Spatula\n\nThe use of a spatula in chemistry laboratories is to transfer solid materials or powder, mix materials, and scrap materials from surfaces. The material used for the construction of reusable spatulas is stainless steel. There are different styles of stainless steel spatulas; micro, double-ended, and trough-shaped spatulas are some types.\n\n### Laboratory thermometer\n\nThe thermometer measures different chemicals and substances’ room temperature, freezing, and boiling points. A laboratory thermometer is typically a liquid-in-glass type, a sealed glass stem containing alcohol (often dyed) or, in older instruments, mercury, which expands up a calibrated scale as temperature rises.\n\nDigital thermometers with a probe are now common. These measure the temperature of a substance in contact with the bulb or probe, which is what freezing-point and boiling-point determinations require. Infrared thermometers, by contrast, measure surface temperature at a distance and are not used for these contact measurements.\n\n### Forceps\n\nThese are hinged tools that help to grasp and hold objects. Their main use is when hands and fingers are too big for things. There are various forceps like a thumb, locking, and kelly forceps.\n\nThumb forceps or tweezers are useful in chemistry laboratories. In chemistry laboratories, forceps help to hold chemicals and solids that should not be handled with bare hands, like sodium metal. The thumb forceps are held like pen style between the thumb and index finger.\n\n### Litmus paper\n\n**Litmus paper** answers only one question: is the solution acidic or basic? It turns red in acid and blue in alkali, but gives no measure of how acidic or how basic. **pH paper (universal indicator strips)** goes further, producing a range of colors matched against a chart to estimate the actual pH value, usually to within a unit. So litmus tells you the direction; pH paper tells you roughly how far. Neither is as precise as a pH meter.\n\n**Where students get confused:** litmus does not give a pH number. A common exam trap is to ask for the pH of a solution given only that it turned litmus red; the correct answer is that litmus shows it is acidic (pH below 7) but cannot give a value.\n\n### Analytical balance\n\n![Parts of analytical balance](\u002Fblogs\u002Fimage.png)Figure: Parts of analytical balance\n\nThis laboratory equipment helps in weighing the mass of chemicals and objects. It can measure up to 0.01 mg. The balance is very precise equipment for measurement and comes in different varieties like single pan, double pan, electronic, and microbalance. In chemistry laboratories, this equipment makes solutions by weighing the right amount of substances (generally solid).\n\n[Read more about analytical balance here.](\u002Fanalytical-balance-parts-principle-and-applications\u002F)\n\n### Droppers\n\nThis equipment dispenses liquid substances from one container to another for various experiments. The droppers are plastic or glass and may or may not have graduation marks. The plastic droppers are for one-time use, and glass droppers are reusable. One end of the dropper has a bulb that helps dispense the perfect drop of solution.\n\n### Mortar and pestle\n\nThese are two pieces of laboratory equipment that aid in crushing and grinding objects. The shape of the mortar is like a bowl. Its construction is from durable materials like ceramic or stones. The pestle is a club-shaped grinding piece of equipment made of the same material as mortar.\n\nIn the laboratory, a mortar and pestle grinds solid samples into a fine, uniform powder, which is often necessary before weighing, dissolving, or reacting a solid, since smaller particles dissolve and react faster and more evenly. Hard samples such as crystals or dried material are reduced this way before analysis.\n\n## Glassware used in Chemistry Laboratory\n\nAlthough many pieces of equipment required in chemistry laboratories are made of glass, this section comprises general purposes laboratory equipment constructed of glass. These include test tubes, flasks, stirrers, etc.\n\n### Test tubes\n\nThese are used to perform various laboratory tests. In the chemistry laboratory, test tubes assist in testing different properties of organic and inorganic compounds. It is also helpful to study various properties of gases after laboratory preparation.\n\n![Test tube in rack - Test tube in rack](\u002Fblogs\u002Ftest-tubes-in-rack.jpg)Figure: Test tube in rack\n\nThe tube has a cylindrical shape with closed rounded bottoms and open at the top. There may or may not be the presence of rims at the top. These come in various sizes and are the most common laboratory equipment.\n\n[Read more about test tubes here.](\u002Ftest-tube-types-uses-and-importance\u002F)\n\n### Round bottom flask\n\nThe flask has a round bottom or base and is applicable in various experiments, especially gas preparation and distillation. RB flask is made of borosilicate glass and is available in multiple sizes, and the number of necks also varies.\n\n### Beaker\n\n![Different types of beakers](\u002Fblogs\u002FGlassware-\\_Beaker.jpg)Figure: Different types of beakers\n\nThe use of laboratory equipment is to hold chemicals or liquids in laboratories. It has a beak-like spout on the top of the flask, which helps quickly pour fluids, decreasing the risk of spilling. It is available in various sizes, like common form and tall form. Graduations marks are present in some beakers. However, these could be more precise.\n\n[Read more about beakers here.](\u002Fbeaker-features-types-and-applications\u002F)\n\n### Glass rod\n\nIt is applicable in stirring and mixing liquids. The equipment is made of borosilicate glass and does not have any openings. The rod comprises a single glass piece, and its length is 10-40 cm with a diameter of 0.5 cm.\n\n### Glass tube\n\nLike glass rods, these are also made of single glass pieces that are cylindrical and hollow from both sides. Its use is for liquid dispensing tubes for transferring solutions from one place to another or delivery tubes for gas production.\n\n### Funnel\n\n![funnel](\u002Fblogs\u002FFunnel.jpg)Figure: funnel\n\nThis piece of laboratory equipment is helpful in the filtration and pouring of liquids or fine-graded materials from one container to another. Its neck is narrow, which allows only a certain amount of fluids to pass through. The use of funnels is also in other separation methods, like evaporation and condensation.\n\n### Watch glass\n\nThis piece of laboratory equipment is concave in shape and useful in evaporating liquid by placing it on top of a beaker with boiling water. It is also known as clock glass. It also holds solid substances and covers beakers.\n\n### Reagent bottle\n\nThe use of these bottles are to preserve and store chemicals and prepare solutions. These are generally made of borosilicate glass and have a stopper. Like beakers, these also have graduation marks, but the marks could be more precise.\n\n[Read more about laboratory glassware here.](\u002Fglassware-used-in-laboratory\u002F)\n\n## Special Purpose Laboratory Equipment\n\nSome equipment in the chemistry laboratory is essential only during experiments like gas preparation and distillation. The laboratory equipment required in chemistry laboratories for different purposes is as follows:\n\n### Titration Equipment\n\nTitration is the method of slowly adding a solution of known concentration into another solution of unknown concentration until it reaches the neutralization indicated by the change in color. Specific equipment is used in titration: pipette, burette, cylinder, volumetric flask, etc.\n\n**Pipette**\n\n![](\u002Fblogs\u002FTypes-of-Glass-Pipettes.png)This equipment has graduation marks for precise measurements. It helps in transferring liquids and drawing up chemicals. These are cylindrical tube-like structures. Some pipettes have bulbs in between with graduation marks at the top of the pipette.\n\n[Read more about glass pipettes here.](\u002Fglass-pipettes-types-handling-and-uses\u002F)\n\n**Pipette bulb**\n\n![pipette bulb](\u002Fblogs\u002FBulb_for_graduated_pipettes.jpg)Figure: pipette bulb\n\nThe pipette bulb draws up liquid and attaches it to the pipette. The material used for its construction is rubber, and gentle pressure helps draw the liquid from the container.\n\n**Graduated cylinder**\n\n![Graduated cylinder](\u002Fblogs\u002FDifferent-types-of-graduated-cylinder.jpg)Figure: Graduated cylinder\n\nThe use of this laboratory equipment is to measure the volume of the liquids precisely. The shape of the equipment is cylinder and tall with a precise graduation mark at the 0.1 to 1 ml interval. The other term used for this equipment is measuring cylinder. Its top part is hollow with a spout for easy pouring, and the base is suitable for flat surfaces.\n\n[Read more about graduated cylinders here.](\u002Fgraduated-cylinder-types-uses-and-how-to-use-it\u002F)\n\n**Burette**\n\n![Burette](\u002Fblogs\u002FBurette.png)Figure: Burette\n\nThis laboratory equipment has a long cylindrical tube-like body with a slightly pointed bottom. The tube has graduation markings, and the bottom has a stopcock, a tap that controls the flow of liquid drop by drop. It holds the solution and allows the control flow of the solutions for titration. The graduations run from zero at the top downward, so the volume delivered is read as the difference between the start and end levels. This is why a burette measures volume dispensed rather than volume held.\n\n**Conical flask**\n\n![Different types of Conical Flask](\u002Fblogs\u002F800px-Erlenmeyer_flasks_en.svg\\_.png)Figure: Different types of Conical Flask\n\nThe other name of this flask is Erlenmeyer’s flask. Its shape is cone-like, with a flat bottom and a cylindrical neck. Its use is as a reaction flask. These also have graduation marks, just like beakers which could be more precise. It is available in various sizes or can hold different volumes. The flask is placed below the burette in the ring stand. It receives the solution from the burette. The flask is usually made of borosilicate glass.\n\n[Read more about conical flask here.](\u002Fconical-flask\u002F)\n\n**Burette clamp and ring stand**\n\nLike all clamps, burette clamps secure the burette in the ring stand during titration. It has an adjustable cork for changing the width of the clamp. One should be careful not to break the glass burette while tightening the cork.\n\nA ring stand is a metal stand with a long rod to attach different clamps. The base of the stand is suitable for placing a conical flask during titration.\n\n**Volumetric flask**\n\n![volumetric flask](\u002Fblogs\u002FVolumetric-flask.jpg)Figure: volumetric flask\n\nThis equipment helps measure\u002Fprepare precise solutions at a specific temperature. Its bottom is flat and pear-shaped. The equipment’s neck is long and cylindrical with calibrated markings. Its use is in preparing molar solutions and is available in different volumes. However, it lacks graduation marks.\n\n### Gas Preparation Equipment\n\nThe reason for gas preparation in the laboratory can vary. The type of gas prepared can vary greatly. Some specific laboratory equipment, like Woulfe’s bottle, beehive shelf, and gas jar, are designed for gas preparation.\n\n**Woulfe’s bottle**\n\nA bottle with two or three necks, named after Peter Woulfe, used as the reaction vessel for gas preparation. In the common two-necked arrangement, one neck holds the thistle funnel through which liquid reagent is added, and the other holds the delivery tube that carries the gas away. Both are sealed airtight with corks so the only exit for the gas is the delivery tube.\n\n**Thistle funnel**\n\nA long glass tube with a small funnel-shaped bulb at the top, its rim flared. It passes through a hole in the cork of the gas-generating bottle so liquid reagent, such as dilute hydrochloric acid for hydrogen preparation, can be added to the solid inside without opening the apparatus.\n\n**The critical detail:** the lower end of the thistle funnel must dip below the surface of the liquid inside the bottle. If it does not, the gas being generated escapes back up through the funnel instead of leaving by the delivery tube. This is the single most common setup error with a thistle funnel, and it is a frequent exam question. The liquid seal at the funnel's lower end is what forces the gas out the intended path.\n\n**Cork**\n\nIt is made of rubber. Drilling a hole in the cork similar to the delivery tube and thistle funnel helps create an airtight seal while preparing gases. It is placed on the opening of Woulfe’s bottle and round bottom flask. It comes in various sizes depending on the gas produced and the apparatus used.\n\n**Water trough**\n\nA shallow open container that holds water, used for collecting gases over water. The beehive shelf sits inside the trough, submerged, and the gas jar rests on top of the shelf, filled with water and inverted. Gas travelling up the delivery tube enters the shelf's opening, bubbles up into the inverted jar, and displaces the water downward, so the jar fills with gas from the top while water leaves from the bottom.\n\n**Why collection over water works:** the method suits gases that are not appreciably soluble in water, such as hydrogen and oxygen. It does not suit gases like ammonia or hydrogen chloride, which dissolve, so those are collected by displacement of air instead.\n\n**Where students get confused:** the water trough is not just a water container. Its job is to provide the water surface through which the gas bubbles and over which it is trapped. In distillation it plays a different role, holding the receiving flask and cooling the condensed liquid.\n\n**Beehive shelf**\n\nA small dome of porcelain or ceramic with a hole in the top and a notch at the base, used together with the water trough for collecting gas over water. It sits submerged in the trough. The delivery tube feeds gas into the notch at its base, and the gas rises through the hole in the top directly into the mouth of the inverted, water-filled gas jar resting on the shelf.\n\n**Why the shelf is needed at all:** it holds the gas jar steady and positions its mouth over the rising gas stream, so bubbles enter the jar rather than escaping around it. Without the shelf, the jar cannot be held mouth-down over the delivery tube in a stable way.\n\n**Gas jar**\n\nAs the name suggests, the jar collects gas after preparation. Its shape is a cylinder with an end hollow, and another end closed. It is usually made up of glass. The jar has a lid to protect the gas from escaping.\n\n**Kipp’s Apparatus**\n\nThis apparatus aids in preparing gases in small volumes. A Dutch pharmacist, Petrus Jacobus Kipp, designed it. It helps in generating a continuous supply of gas during laboratory experiments. Nowadays, it is highly applicable in preparing hydrogen sulfide gas. It has three bulbs; bulbs A, B, and C.\n\nThe apparatus has three connected chambers stacked vertically: the lower bulb (A), the middle bulb (B), and the upper bulb (C), which extends into a long tube reaching down into A. The solid reagent sits in the middle bulb, resting on a constriction. Liquid acid is poured into the top bulb and runs down the tube into the lower bulb.\n\n**How the automatic control works, and this is the clever part:** when the outlet tap on the middle bulb is opened, acid is pushed up from the lower bulb into the middle bulb, contacts the solid, and generates gas. When the tap is closed, the pressure of accumulating gas pushes the acid back down out of the middle bulb, away from the solid, and the reaction stops. So the apparatus generates gas only on demand, restarting and stopping as the tap is opened and closed. It is commonly used for hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.\n\n### Distillation Equipment\n\nDistillation is the method of separating liquid components in a mixture by selective evaporation and condensation. Some pieces of equipment used in distillation are common, like a Bunsen burner, tripod stand, and wire gauze. Others, like glass retort and condenser, are uncommon.\n\n**Glass retort**\n\nThis equipment aids in dry distillation. It has a spherical vessel where the substance to be separated is placed and a long neck that acts as a condenser. There is also an inlet in the cylindrical container for pouring the substance.\n\nHeat is applied to the vessel; vapor rises into the long neck, cools, and condenses, running down into a receiver. Historically it was used for distillation generally, including purifying water from dissolved solids, though it has largely been replaced by flask-and-condenser setups in modern laboratories.\n\n**Distillation flask**\n\nThis piece of laboratory equipment aids to separate two different liquids with varying boiling points. The bottom of the flask is round for even heating. It has a long neck and side arm for condensation.\n\n### Equipment for Lassaigne’s Test\n\nLassaigne’s test helps to detect foreign elements present in the organic compound. It requires some equipment that is not used generally, which are ignition tubes and crucible. Other pieces of equipment are common, like test tubes, burners, and beakers.\n\n**Ignition tube**\n\nIt is a glass tube similar in structure to generally used test tubes. However, the ignition tube is small in size. Its use is for heating sodium metal and an organic compound.\n\n**Crucible**\n\nA crucible is a small ceramic or porcelain container that withstands very high temperatures, used to hold a solid while it is strongly heated or ignited. In Lassaigne's test, the fused sodium-and-compound mixture from the ignition tube is prepared for analysis; the crucible provides a heat-resistant vessel for such high-temperature steps. The material used for its construction is porcelain or ceramic. It may or may not come with a cover.\n\n## Safety Equipment Required in Chemistry Laboratory\n\nSafety should be of utmost priority in any laboratory. Chemistry laboratory deals with different chemicals and compounds that can cause harm to laboratory technicians and people dealing with these chemicals. The safety equipment includes:\n\n**Goggles**\n\nUsing goggles helps protect the eyes from the splashes of chemicals. These goggles are generally tight-fitting, with clear glass. Experts recommend the use of certified goggles.\n\n**Apron**\n\nAcids used in chemistry labs can damage clothes. Likewise, colored compounds like potassium dichromate leave permanent stains on clothes. So, safety protocols recommend the use of an apron in the chemistry laboratory.\n\n**Gloves**\n\nChemicals generally irritate the skin when frequently handled, so gloves can protect hands from being chemicals and heat related burns. Likewise, experiments relating to heating are also frequent in chemistry laboratories, so the use of gloves while handling hot equipment is necessary for one conducting the experiments.\n\n## **How to remember the gas-preparation setup**\n\n**Follow the gas, not the glass.** Trace the path: reagent goes in through the thistle funnel, meets the solid in Woulfe's bottle, the gas leaves by the delivery tube, travels to the beehive shelf inside the water trough, and bubbles up into the inverted gas jar. Every piece has one job on that path.\n\n**The thistle funnel must drink.** Its lower end sits below the liquid, forming a seal. A thistle funnel with its end in the air lets the gas escape backward. If you remember one setup rule, remember this one.\n\n**Kipp's stops itself.** Open the tap and acid rises to meet the solid and make gas. Close it and the gas pressure pushes the acid back down, away from the solid. It only works when you ask it to.\n\n**Over water for the insoluble.** Collect a gas over water only if it does not dissolve in water. Hydrogen and oxygen, yes. Ammonia and hydrogen chloride, no; those go by air displacement.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Eastern Illinois University, Department of Chemistry. The Bunsen burner. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.eiu.edu\u002Feiuchem\u002Fforms\u002Fburner.pdf>\n2. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Environment, Health & Safety. Laboratory glassware cleaning. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fehs.wisc.edu>\n3. Vogel AI, Jeffery GH. Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative Chemical Analysis. 5th ed. Harlow: Longman Scientific & Technical. (Titration apparatus, volumetric glassware, and technique.)\n4. Furniss BS, Hannaford AJ, Smith PWG, Tatchell AR. Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry. 5th ed. Harlow: Longman. (Distillation and gas-preparation apparatus.)\n5. Nuffield Foundation \u002F Royal Society of Chemistry. Practical chemistry: apparatus and techniques. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fedu.rsc.org>\n6. IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology (the Gold Book). \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fgoldbook.iupac.org>",[],[51],"laboratory-glassware",[53,61,89,113,136,158,180,202],{"slug":54,"title":55,"description":56,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":58,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":59,"tags":60},"equipment-essential-for-microbiology-laboratory","Microbiology Laboratory Equipment: List, Uses, and How They Work","A practical guide to essential microbiology laboratory equipment, what each instrument does, how it works, and when it is used, covering sterilizers, incubators, microscopes, centrifuges, and glassware.","2022-05-25","2026-07-28",[],[],{"slug":62,"title":63,"description":64,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":65,"createdDate":66,"lastUpdatedDate":67,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":68,"tags":87},"bunsen-burner-parts-principle-and-applications","Bunsen Burner: Flame Types, Aseptic Use, and Why Never in a Safety Cabinet","Which Bunsen flame to use, how it actually keeps your work aseptic (and how little it sterilizes), and why a naked flame must never go inside a biosafety cabinet.","Samikshya Acharya","2022-09-18","2026-08-22",[69,72,75,78,81,84],{"question":70,"answer":71},"Does a Bunsen burner sterilize the air around my work?","No. It sterilizes only what passes through the flame, such as a loop or a tube rim, and creates a small updraft zone a few centimeters above the barrel. The surrounding air and an open plate beside the flame are not sterilized. Work close to the flame and keep plates open as briefly as possible.",{"question":73,"answer":74},"Why should I never use a Bunsen burner inside a biosafety cabinet?","The flame disrupts the cabinet's laminar airflow, which is the mechanism that protects you and your sample. It can also overheat and damage the HEPA filter or the cabinet's adhesives, and it is a fire and explosion risk. Use disposable sterile loops or a micro-incinerator instead.",{"question":76,"answer":77},"Which Bunsen flame should I use to heat something?","The blue flame, produced with the air hole open. The yellow (safety) flame is cool, around 300°C, and deposits soot. The blue flame is clean and hot; the hottest point is just above the tip of the inner blue cone.",{"question":79,"answer":80},"What is the difference between the safety flame and the roaring flame?","The safety flame is yellow, cool (~300°C), and produced with the air hole closed; it is used to mark that the burner is on. The roaring flame is blue, noisy, and the hottest (~1500°C), produced with the air hole fully open; it is used for rapid, high-temperature heating.",{"question":82,"answer":83},"What is the difference between a Tirrill, Teclu, and Méker burner?","The Tirrill burner adjusts both gas and air at the base. The Teclu burner has a longer barrel for better gas-air mixing and a stronger flame. The Méker burner has a wide, grid-covered top that produces multiple small flames, giving the hottest and quietest heat with a broad, even heating area.",{"question":85,"answer":86},"What is the working principle of a Bunsen burner?","It works on the venturi effect. Gas leaving the nozzle at high velocity lowers the pressure at the air holes, drawing in air that mixes with the gas inside the barrel before igniting at the top. This pre-mixing is what produces a hot, smokeless flame.",[88],"laboratory-heating-equipment",{"slug":90,"title":91,"description":92,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":93,"createdDate":94,"lastUpdatedDate":95,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":96,"tags":112},"desiccator-working-mechanism-types-and-uses","Desiccator: How It Works, the Desiccant and Its Color Change, Types, and Uses","How a desiccator keeps samples dry, what silica gel does and why it changes color, how to regenerate spent desiccant, the main types, and how to handle a desiccator without ruining the seal.","Padma Shrestha","2022-11-22","2026-08-01",[97,100,103,106,109],{"question":98,"answer":99},"\u003Cp>How does a desiccator keep things dry?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A desiccator is an airtight container holding a drying agent called a desiccant, usually silica gel. The desiccant absorbs water molecules from the sealed air and from the samples inside, keeping the interior at low humidity so hygroscopic materials do not reabsorb moisture.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":101,"answer":102},"\u003Cp>Why does the silica gel in a desiccator change color?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Indicating silica gel contains a dye that changes color as it absorbs water. It is blue when dry and turns pink when saturated (or orange to green in the newer, safer type). The color change tells you the desiccant is spent and needs regenerating.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":104,"answer":105},"\u003Cp>How do you regenerate silica gel?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Heat the saturated silica gel to about 120 to 150°C for a few hours to drive off the absorbed water. Indicating gel returns to its dry color when fully regenerated, and it can be reused through many cycles.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":107,"answer":108},"\u003Cp>Why should you not put a hot crucible directly into a desiccator?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A hot object warms the air inside, which then contracts as it cools and creates a partial vacuum that makes the lid hard to open. Cool very hot crucibles briefly first, then transfer them to finish cooling in the desiccator.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":110,"answer":111},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a standard and a vacuum desiccator?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A standard desiccator relies only on its desiccant to keep dry. A vacuum desiccator adds a pump, connected through a stopcock, to remove air and moisture faster and protect air-sensitive materials. Both can use desiccants.\u003C\u002Fp>",[51],{"slug":114,"title":115,"description":116,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":117,"lastUpdatedDate":118,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":119,"tags":135},"centrifuge-parts-types-handling","Centrifuge: Parts, Types, RCF vs. RPM, and How to Balance It Safely","How a centrifuge works, its parts and types, the difference between RCF and RPM (and why it decides reproducibility), and how to balance a rotor safely. A practical guide for laboratory students.","2022-06-03","2026-07-30",[120,123,126,129,132],{"question":121,"answer":122},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between RCF and RPM?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>RPM (revolutions per minute) is how fast the rotor spins, shown on the dial. RCF (relative centrifugal force, written as x g) is the actual force the sample experiences, in multiples of gravity. RCF depends on both the RPM and the rotor radius, so the same RPM produces different force on different centrifuges. Protocols specify RCF because it is reproducible; RPM is not.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":124,"answer":125},"\u003Cp>Why do you have to balance a centrifuge?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>At high speed, any uneven weight distribution around the rotor is multiplied into a violent wobble that can crack the rotor, break tubes, or move the machine, and in an ultracentrifuge can cause injury. Balancing keeps the center of mass on the spin axis. Place equal-mass tubes directly opposite each other, and use a water-filled blank if you have an odd number.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":127,"answer":128},"\u003Cp>Should I balance tubes by volume or by weight?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By weight. Two tubes of equal volume but different-density contents are not balanced. Match the masses of opposing tubes, not just their fill levels.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":130,"answer":131},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a fixed-angle and a swinging-bucket rotor?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A fixed-angle rotor holds tubes at a set angle and pellets particles quickly against the tube wall. A swinging-bucket rotor lets the tubes swing out to horizontal while spinning, giving a flat pellet and clean separation of layers, which suits density-gradient work and separating blood.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":133,"answer":134},"\u003Cp>Why are some centrifuges refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The friction of a spinning rotor generates heat that can damage heat-sensitive samples such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and antibodies. A refrigerated centrifuge holds a low temperature (commonly around 4°C) during the spin to protect these samples.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":137,"title":138,"description":139,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":65,"createdDate":140,"lastUpdatedDate":118,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":141,"tags":157},"analytical-balance-parts-principle-and-applications","Analytical Balance: Parts, Functions, Principle, and How to Weigh Accurately","Analytical balance parts and their functions, how electromagnetic force restoration works, and the weighing errors (air currents, static, temperature) that ruin a reading, and how to avoid them.","2022-11-14",[142,145,148,151,154],{"question":143,"answer":144},"\u003Cp>What is an analytical balance used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An analytical balance measures mass to 0.1 mg (four decimal places of a gram), so it is used wherever small, precise weights matter: preparing standard solutions and reagents, weighing media components, gravimetric analysis, and quality control in pharmaceutical, chemical, and food work.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":146,"answer":147},"\u003Cp>How does an analytical balance work?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It uses electromagnetic force restoration. An electromagnet generates an upward force to counter the weight of the sample on the pan, and the current needed to do this is proportional to the mass, which the balance displays. It measures force, not weight directly.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":149,"answer":150},"\u003Cp>Why does an analytical balance have a glass draft shield?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because at 0.1 mg resolution, moving air is enough to disturb the reading. The draft shield encloses the pan so air currents, and dust, cannot affect the measurement. Always weigh with the shield closed.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":152,"answer":153},"\u003Cp>Why does my analytical balance reading keep drifting?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Common causes are an open draft shield, a sample or container warmer than the balance, static charge on a plastic container or powder, nearby vibration, or a sample that is absorbing or losing moisture. A reading that drifts steadily in one direction usually means the sample itself is changing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":155,"answer":156},"\u003Cp>What is taring, and why is it important?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Taring resets the display to zero with your container already on the pan, so the balance then shows only the mass of what you add. It lets you weigh a sample without including the container's weight, and it is why chemicals are never weighed directly on the pan.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":159,"title":160,"description":161,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":162,"lastUpdatedDate":118,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":163,"tags":179},"test-tube-types-uses-and-importance","Test Tube: Types, Sizes, Uses, and How It Differs From Other Lab Tubes","Test tube types, sizes, and uses, how to tell a test tube apart from culture, centrifuge, Durham, and blood collection tubes, and what the Durham tube detects. A practical guide for laboratory students.","2023-03-22",[164,167,170,173,176],{"question":165,"answer":166},"\u003Cp>What is the standard size of a test tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The standard laboratory test tube is about 18 mm × 150 mm. Sizes range from small tubes around 13 × 100 mm to large tubes around 20 × 150 mm, plus the very small Durham tube used for gas detection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":168,"answer":169},"\u003Cp>What is a Durham tube used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A Durham tube is a small tube placed upside down inside a larger tube of fermentation broth. It traps any gas the organism produces, which appears as a visible bubble at its closed top and is read as a positive test for gas production.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":171,"answer":172},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a test tube and a centrifuge tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A test tube has a rounded bottom and is used for holding, mixing, and heating. A centrifuge tube has a tapered, conical bottom so that spun-down material collects at the tip, and it is built to withstand the forces of centrifugation.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":174,"answer":175},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a test tube and a culture tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A culture tube is essentially a test tube fitted with a cap and used specifically to grow microorganisms in broth or on agar slants without contamination. A plain test tube is the general-purpose version used for reactions and holding samples.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":177,"answer":178},"\u003Cp>Should I use a glass or plastic test tube?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Use reusable borosilicate glass when the tube will be heated or autoclaved, since it withstands heat and chemicals. Use disposable plastic tubes for routine work where avoiding cross-contamination and cost matter more than heat resistance.\u003C\u002Fp>",[51],{"slug":181,"title":182,"description":183,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":65,"createdDate":184,"lastUpdatedDate":118,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":185,"tags":201},"beaker-features-types-and-applications","Beaker: Features, Types, Uses, and Why It Is Not for Accurate Measurement","Beaker features, types, and uses, why a beaker measures only approximate volumes, and when to use a graduated cylinder or flask instead. A practical guide for laboratory students.","2023-02-02",[186,189,192,195,198],{"question":187,"answer":188},"\u003Cp>What is a beaker used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A beaker is used for holding, heating, mixing, and dissolving liquids and solids in the laboratory. Its wide mouth makes it easy to add materials and heat contents, but it is not used for measuring precise volumes.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":190,"answer":191},"\u003Cp>Why is a beaker not accurate for measuring volume?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because a beaker is wide and straight-sided, a small change in the liquid level corresponds to a large change in volume, and its graduations are only printed to a rough tolerance of about five percent. For an accurate volume, a graduated cylinder or volumetric flask is used instead.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":193,"answer":194},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a beaker and a conical (Erlenmeyer) flask?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both hold and mix liquids, but a conical flask has a narrow neck that lets you swirl vigorously without spilling and is easy to stopper. A beaker has a wide mouth that is better for adding solids and heating but spills more easily when swirled.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":196,"answer":197},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a Griffin and a Berzelius beaker?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A Griffin, or low-form, beaker is the short, wide, general-purpose beaker used for most laboratory work. A Berzelius, or tall-form, beaker is taller than it is wide and is used mainly in titration.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":199,"answer":200},"\u003Cp>Can a beaker be heated directly?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A borosilicate glass or metal beaker can be heated on a hot plate or over a wire gauze, not directly in an open flame, and should be filled to no more than one-third when heating. Most plastic beakers cannot be heated.\u003C\u002Fp>",[51],{"slug":203,"title":204,"description":205,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":206,"lastUpdatedDate":118,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":207,"tags":208},"glassware-used-in-laboratory","Glassware Used in the Microbiology Laboratory: Names and Uses","The glassware used in a microbiology laboratory, with the name, use, and material of each, from Petri dishes and test tubes to conical flasks, pipettes, and McCartney bottles. A guide for microbiology students.","2023-01-18",[],[51],{"enabled":210,"threads":211,"total":212},true,[],0,[214,221,227,234,239,244,250,255,261,264,271],{"slug":215,"name":216,"description":217,"image":218,"body":219,"postCount":220},"acharya-tankeshwar","Acharya Tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",480,{"slug":222,"name":43,"description":223,"image":224,"body":225,"postCount":226},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":228,"name":229,"description":230,"image":231,"body":232,"postCount":233},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":235,"name":65,"description":230,"image":236,"body":237,"postCount":238},"samikshya-acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":240,"name":241,"description":230,"image":42,"body":242,"postCount":243},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":245,"name":246,"description":247,"image":42,"body":248,"postCount":249},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":251,"name":252,"description":253,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":256,"name":257,"description":230,"image":258,"body":259,"postCount":260},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":262,"name":263,"description":253,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":265,"name":266,"description":267,"image":268,"body":269,"postCount":270},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":272,"name":93,"description":273,"image":274,"body":275,"postCount":254},"padma-shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[277,284,290,295,300,305,309,313,317,322,326,331,335,340,345,349,353,357,362,367,371,375,379,384,388,392,396,400,405,410,414,418,422,427,431,435,439,443,447,451,455,459,463,467,471,475,479,483,487,490,494,498,502,506,510,514,518,522,526,530,534,538,542,546,550,554,558,562,565,569,572,575,578,581,584,587,590,593,596],{"slug":278,"name":279,"description":280,"image":281,"body":282,"postCount":283},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":285,"name":286,"description":287,"image":42,"body":288,"postCount":289},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":293,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":294},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":296,"name":297,"description":298,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":301,"name":302,"description":303,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":304},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":308,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":294},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":310,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":294},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":314,"name":315,"description":316,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":289},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":318,"name":319,"description":320,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":323,"name":324,"description":325,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":260},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":327,"name":328,"description":329,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":330},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":332,"name":333,"description":334,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":289},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":341,"name":342,"description":343,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":344},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":346,"name":347,"description":348,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":330},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":350,"name":351,"description":42,"image":42,"body":352,"postCount":243},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":354,"name":355,"description":42,"image":42,"body":356,"postCount":339},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":358,"name":359,"description":360,"image":42,"body":361,"postCount":321},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":42,"body":366,"postCount":243},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":370,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":374,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":380,"name":381,"description":382,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":383},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":387,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":397,"name":398,"description":399,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":304},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":401,"name":402,"description":403,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":404},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":406,"name":407,"description":408,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":411,"name":412,"description":413,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":304},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":249},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":423,"name":424,"description":425,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":404},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":249},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":466},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":474,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":289},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":476,"name":477,"description":478,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":283},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":480,"name":481,"description":482,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":88,"name":484,"description":485,"image":42,"body":486,"postCount":243},"Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":51,"name":488,"description":489,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":249},"Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":491,"name":492,"description":493,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":495,"name":496,"description":497,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":499,"name":500,"description":501,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":503,"name":504,"description":505,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":339},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":509,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":330},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":511,"name":512,"description":513,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":294},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":515,"name":516,"description":517,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":519,"name":520,"description":521,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":523,"name":524,"description":525,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":304},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":527,"name":528,"description":529,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":466},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":531,"name":532,"description":533,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":535,"name":536,"description":537,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":539,"name":540,"description":541,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":543,"name":544,"description":545,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":547,"name":548,"description":549,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":551,"name":552,"description":553,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":555,"name":556,"description":557,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":321},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":559,"name":560,"description":561,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":563,"name":564,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":566,"name":567,"description":568,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":570,"name":571,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":466},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":573,"name":574,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":299},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":579,"name":580,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":582,"name":583,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":585,"name":586,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":466},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":466},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":594,"name":595,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":409},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":597,"name":598,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":404},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing"]