[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fQt4IAzZzgal6c1Lx_F9VlHEoSlCJO4ZbIDcb_MwUuT0":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":145,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":210},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":50,"related":52,"comments":141},"ebola-virus-disease","Ebola Virus Disease (EVD): Symptoms, Transmission, and Diagnosis","\u003Cp>Ebola virus disease is a severe illness spread through body fluids. Learn its symptoms, how it spreads, how it is diagnosed, and how vaccines and treatments now change survival.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2014-10-10","2026-08-29",false,"virology","A health worker in West Africa sees a patient with fever, headache, and muscle pain. Nothing yet separates this from the malaria and typhoid cases seen every day. That is the central danger of Ebola. For its first days it wears the face of ordinary illness, and by the time the bleeding and vomiting make it unmistakable, the patient has already been infectious to everyone who touched them without protection. Recognizing Ebola early, before it announces itself, is the whole challenge.\n\n![Ebola virus structure](\u002Fblogs\u002FEbola-virus-structure-300x168.jpg)Figure: Ebola virus structure\n\nEbola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever, is a severe and often fatal illness in humans. Its case fatality rate averages around 50 percent but has ranged from 25 to 90 percent across different outbreaks, depending on the virus species and the quality of medical care available. It is one of the most feared infectious diseases known, both for its high mortality and for how readily it spreads through contact with body fluids.\n\nEbola first appeared in 1976 in two simultaneous outbreaks, one in a village near the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the other in what is now South Sudan.\n\n\"Ebola\" is not a single virus. Several species cause human disease, and they differ sharply in how deadly they are. Ebola virus (the species long known as *Zaire ebolavirus*, now formally renamed *Orthoebolavirus zairense*) is the most lethal and the one behind the largest outbreaks. Sudan virus and Bundibugyo virus cause serious outbreaks too but with lower fatality. This distinction matters clinically, because the licensed vaccine and treatments protect against Ebola virus (Zaire) only, not the other species.\n\n## Properties\n\n![what you really have to know about ebola](\u002Fblogs\u002Fwhat-you-really-have-to-know-about-ebola-300x162.jpg)1. The Ebola virus got its name from the river where the first outbreak emerged in 1976 – the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) in Africa.\n\n2. Fruit bats of the *Pteropodidae* family are considered to be the natural host of the Ebola virus.\n\n3. Ebola is not a respiratory disease. It does not spread through the air, through coughing or sneezing, through casual contact, or through water. This is one of the most important facts about Ebola, because it means the disease spreads only through direct contact with body fluids, which is exactly what makes careful infection control so effective at stopping it.\n\n4. Infected fruits bats or primates (apes and monkeys) can transmit the Ebola virus. Dogs or cats are not able to spread Ebola to people or other animals.\n\n5. Mosquitoes that transmit many deadly diseases such as Malaria, Filariasis, and Japanese Encephalitis are not able to carry and transmit the Ebola virus.\n\n6. If an exposed person does not develop Ebola symptoms after 21 days, he\u002Fshe will not have Ebola.\n\n7. Ebola spreads from one person to another only after symptoms begin. A person who is infected but not yet showing symptoms cannot pass the virus to others. This single fact governs how contacts are traced and monitored during an outbreak.\n\n## Transmission\n\nThe Ebola virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. It transmits via the body fluids (blood, vomit, urine, feces, sweat, and other fluids) of a person who is infected with or who died from Ebola or via objects contaminated with the virus (like needles and syringes, etc.).\n\nInfection occurs from direct contact (human to human transmission) through broken skin or mucous membranes with infected people’s blood or other bodily fluids or secretions (stool, urine, saliva, etc.). Infection can also occur if a healthy person’s broken skin or mucous membranes come into contact with environments contaminated with an Ebola patient’s infectious fluids, such as soiled clothing, bed linen, or used needles.\n\n## Risk Groups\n\nDuring an outbreak, those at higher risk of infection are:\n\n- health workers;\n- family members or others in close contact with infected people;\n- mourners who have direct contact with the bodies of the deceased as part of burial ceremonies.\n\n## Signs and symptoms of Ebola\n\nEbola does not begin with bleeding. It begins like many common tropical illnesses, which is exactly why early diagnosis is so hard. The symptoms follow a rough progression.\n\n![How Do I know Some one has Ebola? - How Do I Know Someone has Ebola?](\u002Fblogs\u002FHowDoIKnowSomeoneHasEbola.jpg)Figure: Early Ebola symptoms overlap with malaria and typhoid, making history essential.\n\n**Incubation (2 to 21 days):** No symptoms. The person is infected but not yet ill, and importantly, not yet contagious.\n\n**Early phase (first few days of illness):** Sudden fever, severe headache, muscle and joint pain, intense weakness and fatigue, and sore throat. At this stage Ebola is clinically indistinguishable from malaria, typhoid fever, or many other febrile illnesses. Nothing here points specifically to Ebola, which is why travel and contact history carry so much weight.\n\n**Progressive phase:** Vomiting, diarrhea (often severe and leading to dangerous fluid loss), abdominal pain, and a rash. Impaired kidney and liver function begin to appear.\n\n**Severe\u002Flate phase:** In some patients, internal and external bleeding appears, such as oozing from the gums, blood in the stool, or bleeding from injection sites. Not every patient bleeds. Massive hemorrhage is usually seen only in fatal cases. Death, when it occurs, is most often from fluid loss, shock, and multi-organ failure rather than from blood loss alone.\n\n**Typical laboratory findings:** low white blood cell count, low platelet count (thrombocytopenia), and elevated liver enzymes.\n\nThe clinical lesson: the severe bleeding that most people associate with Ebola is a late and not universal feature. Waiting for it to confirm a diagnosis wastes the critical early window for isolation and supportive care.\n\n## Diagnosis\n\nDiagnosing Ebola in someone infected for only a few days is difficult because the early symptoms, such as fever, are nonspecific to Ebola infection. Also, these symptoms are similar in patients with more commonly occurring diseases, such as [malaria](\u002Fclass-note-laboratory-diagnosis-of-malaria\u002F) and [typhoid fever](\u002Fsalmonella-disease-properties-pathogenesis-and-laboratory-diagnosis\u002F).\n\nThe choice of diagnostic test depends on how long the patient has been ill, because different markers appear at different stages. Early in infection, the virus itself is detectable. Later, the body's antibodies become the marker. This is why a single test is not enough on its own, and why timing changes which test is meaningful.\n\n| Timeline of infection | Diagnostic tests available |\n| --- | --- |\n| Within a few days after symptoms begin | Antigen-capture ELISA, RT-PCR, virus isolation |\n| A few days to weeks into illness | IgM antibodies, then IgG antibodies (by ELISA) |\n| Later in the disease course or after recovery | IgM and IgG antibodies |\n| Retrospectively, in deceased patients | Immunohistochemistry, RT-PCR, virus isolation |\n\n[RT-PCR](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Frt-pcr-principles-applications\u002F) is the mainstay of confirmation during an outbreak because it detects the virus early, is highly specific, and gives results quickly.\n\nHowever, if a person has the early symptoms of Ebola and has had contact with the blood or body fluids of a person sick with Ebola, contact with objects contaminated with the blood or body fluids of a person sick with Ebola, or contact with infected animals, they should be isolated, and public health professionals notified. Samples from the patient can then be collected and tested to confirm infection.\n\nDownload Laboratory Guidelines for Testing of Ebola Virus Disease: [Click to Download](http:\u002F\u002Fwww.nicd.ac.za\u002Fassets\u002Ffiles\u002FLABORATORY%20GUIDELINES%20EVD%202014.pdf)\n\n## Prevention of Ebola Virus Disease\n\nA licensed vaccine and specific treatments for Ebola now exist, which has changed outbreak response significantly. They are covered in the treatment section below. Even so, prevention through avoiding exposure remains the foundation of control, because the vaccine and treatments protect against only one Ebola species (Ebola virus, the Zaire species) and access during outbreaks can be limited.\n\nIf you travel to or are in an area with Ebola outbreak, or you are a healthcare worker or a family or friend of a person suffering from Ebola virus disease, below mentioned steps will help you to reduce the chances of contracting the Ebola virus disease.\n\n1. [Hand washing](\u002Fhandwashing-hygiene-wash-hands\u002F) is the best tool to combat any infectious disease, including Ebola. Practice careful hygiene. For example, wash your hands with soap and water or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer and avoid contact with blood and body fluids.\n2. Do not handle items that may have come in contact with an infected person’s blood or body fluids (such as clothes, bedding, needles, and medical equipment).\n3. Avoid funeral or burial rituals that require handling the body of someone who has died from Ebola.\n4. Avoid contact with bats and nonhuman primates or blood, fluids, and raw meat prepared from these animals.\n5. Avoid unnecessary visits to healthcare facilities that are actively treating Ebola patients, unless you are seeking care yourself, since these settings carry higher exposure risk during an outbreak.\n6. After you return from Ebola-affected regions, monitor your health for 21 days and seek medical care immediately if you develop symptoms of Ebola.\n7. To protect yourself, your family, and your community from EVD transmission, immediately report to the nearest health facility if you develop symptoms of EVD, including high fever, body aches, joint pain, vomiting, diarrhea, or hemorrhaging.\n\n### Safety Steps for Healthcare Workers With Risk of Exposure\n\nHealthcare workers who may be exposed to people with Ebola should follow these steps:\n\n1. Wear protective clothing, including masks, gloves, gowns, and eye protection.\n2. Practice proper infection control and sterilization measures.\n3. Isolate patients with Ebola from other patients.\n4. Avoid direct contact with the bodies of people who have died from Ebola.\n5. Notify health officials if you have had direct contact with the blood or body fluids, such as but not limited to feces, saliva, urine, and vomit of a person who is sick with Ebola. The virus can enter the body through broken skin or unprotected mucous membranes in, for example, the eyes, nose, or mouth.\n\n## Treatment of Ebola virus disease\n\nFor many years there was no specific treatment for Ebola, and care was entirely supportive. That has changed. There are now both a licensed vaccine and approved specific treatments, though supportive care remains essential.\n\n**Supportive care** is still the foundation and can substantially improve survival on its own. It includes intravenous fluids and electrolytes to counter the severe fluid loss from vomiting and diarrhea, maintaining blood pressure and oxygen, and treating any additional infections. Early supportive care is one of the strongest predictors of survival.\n\n**Specific treatments.** Two monoclonal antibody therapies are now approved for Ebola virus (the Zaire species). Inmazeb, a combination of three monoclonal antibodies, was approved in 2020 as the first treatment for Ebola virus infection. Ebanga, a single monoclonal antibody, was approved shortly after. Both work by targeting the viral surface glycoprotein the virus uses to enter cells. In clinical trials, both improved survival compared with earlier treatments.\n\n**Vaccine.** Ervebo, a single-dose vaccine, is licensed and used in outbreak settings to protect health workers and the contacts of infected people. It is currently the vaccine held in the global emergency stockpile. A separate two-dose vaccine regimen (Zabdeno and Mvabea) is also licensed.\n\n**An important limitation.** These vaccines and treatments protect against Ebola virus (the Zaire species) only. They do not protect against Sudan virus or Bundibugyo virus, for which specific vaccines and treatments are still in development. This is why identifying which species is causing an outbreak is not an academic detail. It determines whether these tools can even be used.\n\nAlongside treatment, people suspected or confirmed to have Ebola should be isolated and cared for by health workers using strict infection control, both to give the patient the best chance and to stop the virus from spreading further.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**The incubation-to-isolation window (\"2 to 21\"):** the numbers do double duty. Incubation is **2 to 21 days**, and a contact who stays symptom-free for **21 days** is in the clear. One number pair anchors both the incubation period and the monitoring rule.\n\n**Why early Ebola is missed (\"FHM = Fever, Headache, Malaise, looks like Malaria\"):** the early triad is nonspecific and mimics malaria and typhoid. If you remember that Ebola *hides as malaria first*, you remember why history matters more than symptoms early on.\n\n**The contagious rule in four words:** *symptoms first, then spread.* No symptoms means no transmission. This one line answers most exam questions about Ebola infectiousness and contact tracing.\n\n**Species and the tools (\"Zaire has the tools\"):** vaccine and treatments work for Ebola virus (Zaire species) only. Sudan and Bundibugyo do not yet have them. If a question ties a treatment to Sudan virus, it is testing this exact gap.\n\n## Key exam facts\n\n| Fact | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Family \u002F genus | *Filoviridae*; genus *Orthoebolavirus* |\n| Most lethal species | Ebola virus (*Orthoebolavirus zairense*, formerly *Zaire ebolavirus*) |\n| Natural reservoir | Fruit bats (*Pteropodidae*), strongly suspected |\n| Genome | Enveloped, negative-sense single-stranded RNA |\n| Case fatality rate | \\~50% average; 25 to 90% range by outbreak and species |\n| Incubation period | 2 to 21 days |\n| When contagious | Only after symptoms begin (not during incubation) |\n| Transmission | Direct contact with body fluids; not airborne, not by casual contact or water |\n| Early symptoms | Fever, headache, muscle pain, weakness, sore throat (mimics malaria\u002Ftyphoid) |\n| Later symptoms | Vomiting, diarrhea, rash, organ impairment, sometimes bleeding |\n| Key lab findings | Low WBC, low platelets, elevated liver enzymes |\n| Confirmatory test | RT-PCR (mainstay during outbreaks) |\n| Vaccine | Ervebo (single dose); Zabdeno + Mvabea (two-dose). Zaire species only |\n| Treatments | Inmazeb and Ebanga (monoclonal antibodies). Zaire species only |\n| Highest-risk groups | Health workers, family\u002Fcaregivers, mourners handling bodies |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"Is Ebola airborne?\"** No. This is the single most common misconception. Ebola spreads through direct contact with infected body fluids, not through the air like measles or tuberculosis. A person cannot catch it by being in the same room as a patient without contact. This is precisely why standard barrier precautions work.\n\n**\"Can you catch Ebola from someone before they show symptoms?\"** No. A person becomes contagious only once symptoms begin. During the incubation period (2 to 21 days) they are infected but not infectious. This is the foundation of contact tracing: contacts are monitored for 21 days, and if no symptoms appear, they cannot have transmitted the virus.\n\n**\"Does every Ebola patient bleed?\"** No. Despite the old name \"Ebola hemorrhagic fever,\" visible bleeding is a late feature and does not occur in every case. Many patients die from fluid loss, shock, and organ failure without dramatic hemorrhage. Waiting for bleeding to suspect Ebola is a dangerous mistake.\n\n**\"There's no treatment or vaccine for Ebola, right?\"** Not anymore. This is outdated. A licensed vaccine (Ervebo) and two approved monoclonal antibody treatments (Inmazeb and Ebanga) now exist. The crucial catch: they work only against Ebola virus (the Zaire species), not against Sudan or Bundibugyo virus.\n\n**\"Why is Ebola so hard to diagnose early?\"** Because its first symptoms, fever and headache, are identical to common diseases like malaria and typhoid. Early diagnosis depends less on symptoms and more on travel history and known contact with a case, combined with laboratory testing (RT-PCR).\n\n**\"Do mosquitoes spread Ebola?\"** No. Unlike dengue or malaria, Ebola is not spread by mosquitoes or any insect vector. Its reservoir is fruit bats, and human spread is through fluid contact.\n\n## **References**\n\n1. World Health Organization. (2025). *Ebola disease* \\[Fact sheet\\]. World Health Organization. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.who.int\u002Fnews-room\u002Ffact-sheets\u002Fdetail\u002Febola-disease>\n2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). *Ebola disease*. National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdc.gov\u002Febola\u002F>\n3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2020). *FDA approves first treatment for Ebola virus* \\[Inmazeb; Ebanga\\]. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.fda.gov\u002Femergency-preparedness-and-response\u002Fmcm-issues\u002Febola>\n4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2019). *First FDA-approved vaccine for the prevention of Ebola virus disease* \\[Ervebo\\]. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.fda.gov\u002Femergency-preparedness-and-response\u002Fmcm-issues\u002Febola>\n5. World Health Organization. (2025). *Ebola virus disease vaccines* \\[Questions and answers\\]. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.who.int\u002Fnews-room\u002Fq-a-detail\u002Febola-vaccines>",[],[51],"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers",[53,87,112,121],{"slug":54,"title":55,"description":56,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":58,"draft":46,"category":59,"image":42,"faq":60,"tags":85},"salmonella-disease-properties-pathogenesis-and-laboratory-diagnosis","Salmonella: Properties, Enteric Fever, and Laboratory Diagnosis","How Salmonella causes enteric fever and gastroenteritis, how it is identified in the laboratory (TSI, H₂S, the S. Typhi biochemical pattern), and why blood culture beats the Widal test for diagnosis.","2013-04-27","2026-08-04","bacteriology",[61,64,67,70,73,76,79,82],{"question":62,"answer":63},"\u003Cp>Is Salmonella lactose fermenter or non-fermenter?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Non-fermenter. \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> does not ferment lactose, so it forms pale, colorless colonies on MacConkey agar. This separates it from \u003Cem>E. coli\u003C\u002Fem>, which ferments lactose and turns pink.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":65,"answer":66},"\u003Cp>Does Salmonella produce H₂S?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Most salmonellae produce H₂S, which shows as a black center on selective media such as SS agar and Hektoen enteric agar. \u003Cem>S.\u003C\u002Fem> Typhi produces only weak H₂S. \u003Cem>Shigella\u003C\u002Fem> does not produce H₂S at all, which helps separate the two.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":68,"answer":69},"\u003Cp>What are the TSI results for Salmonella Typhi?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Alkaline slant over acid butt (K\u002FA), with weak H₂S and no gas. It ferments glucose but not lactose or sucrose. The weak H₂S and absence of gas are the classic \u003Cem>S.\u003C\u002Fem> Typhi pattern.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":71,"answer":72},"\u003Cp>Why is blood culture used for typhoid instead of stool?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because enteric fever is a systemic infection. The organism survives inside cells and circulates in the blood rather than staying in the gut, so blood culture detects it reliably while stool culture often does not, especially early. Bone marrow culture is even more sensitive.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":74,"answer":75},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between typhoidal and non-typhoidal Salmonella?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Typhoidal \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> (\u003Cem>S.\u003C\u002Fem> Typhi and \u003Cem>S.\u003C\u002Fem> Paratyphi) infect only humans and cause enteric fever, a systemic illness. Non-typhoidal \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> come from animals and food and usually cause self-limited diarrhea, though they can invade the blood in vulnerable people.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":77,"answer":78},"\u003Cp>Is the Widal test reliable for diagnosing typhoid?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Not on its own. It supports a diagnosis but is often falsely negative in real cases and falsely positive in malaria and other conditions. Culture is the definitive test.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":80,"answer":81},"\u003Cp>How do you tell Salmonella from Shigella in the laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both are pale non-lactose fermenters on MacConkey. \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> is motile and produces H₂S (black colonies on selective media); \u003Cem>Shigella\u003C\u002Fem> is non-motile and does not produce H₂S.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":83,"answer":84},"\u003Cp>Which Salmonella infection is linked to osteomyelitis in sickle cell disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Non-typhoidal \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> is a classic cause of osteomyelitis in people with sickle cell disease.\u003C\u002Fp>",[86],"enterobacteriaceae",{"slug":88,"title":89,"description":90,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":91,"lastUpdatedDate":92,"draft":46,"category":93,"image":42,"faq":94,"tags":110},"rt-pcr-principles-applications","Reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR: Principles, Applications","RT-PCR converts RNA to cDNA using reverse transcriptase before PCR amplification. Learn one-step vs two-step methods, primer types, and clinical uses in RNA virus detection.","2019-12-16","2026-07-05","lab-equipment",[95,98,101,104,107],{"question":96,"answer":97},"What does reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) detect that standard PCR cannot?","RT-PCR detects RNA targets — standard PCR cannot, because it requires a DNA template. RT-PCR adds a reverse transcription step before amplification: the enzyme reverse transcriptase converts single-stranded RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA), which is then amplified by standard PCR. This makes RT-PCR essential for detecting RNA viruses — HIV, hepatitis C, dengue, influenza, SARS-CoV-2, enteroviruses, and West Nile virus all have RNA genomes. RT-PCR can also detect bacterial and parasitic rRNA, and is used to study mRNA gene expression.",{"question":99,"answer":100},"What is the difference between one-step and two-step RT-PCR?","In one-step RT-PCR, reverse transcription and PCR amplification occur in the same tube using a single reaction buffer and gene-specific primers. This minimises sample handling, reduces contamination risk, and is faster — making it the preferred format for clinical diagnostics where a single RNA target needs detection. In two-step RT-PCR, reverse transcription is performed in a first reaction to generate cDNA, which is then stored and used as template for subsequent PCR reactions. This is slower and requires more handling, but the cDNA can be used to amplify multiple different gene targets — making it the preferred format for research and gene expression studies.",{"question":102,"answer":103},"What types of primers are used for cDNA synthesis in RT-PCR?","Three primer types are used for the reverse transcription step. Random hexamers are mixtures of all possible six-nucleotide combinations that bind randomly to any RNA and generate cDNA from the entire RNA pool. Oligo-dT primers are complementary to the poly-A tail present on mRNA molecules, producing cDNA from mRNA only. Gene-specific primers bind selectively to the mRNA of interest, making reverse transcription a targeted process. Random hexamers give the broadest coverage; oligo-dT targets mRNA specifically; gene-specific primers are the most restricted and most targeted.",{"question":105,"answer":106},"Why does RT-PCR detect viable organisms better than standard DNA PCR?","DNA is chemically stable and persists in dead cells for extended periods after an organism has been killed — meaning standard PCR can return a positive result from non-viable organisms weeks after successful treatment. RNA, by contrast, degrades rapidly after cell death because RNA molecules are intrinsically unstable and are immediately targeted by cellular RNases when the organism dies. Detecting rRNA by RT-PCR therefore indicates the presence of metabolically active, viable organisms. This makes RT-PCR targeting rRNA more informative than DNA PCR when assessing treatment response or distinguishing active infection from residual nucleic acid.",{"question":108,"answer":109},"What is RT-qPCR and how does it differ from RT-PCR?","RT-qPCR (reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR) combines two methods: the reverse transcription step of RT-PCR (converting RNA to cDNA) with the real-time fluorescent detection of qPCR (measuring amplification during each cycle). RT-PCR alone detects presence or absence of an RNA target qualitatively. RT-qPCR quantifies how much RNA is present — expressed as copy number or viral load. HIV viral load and HCV viral load assays are RT-qPCR: they use reverse transcriptase because the targets are RNA viruses, and real-time detection to quantify the viral load for treatment monitoring.",[111],"pcr-techniques",{"slug":113,"title":114,"description":115,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":116,"lastUpdatedDate":117,"draft":46,"category":118,"image":42,"faq":119,"tags":120},"handwashing-hygiene-wash-hands","Hand Hygiene in Healthcare: Handrub vs. Handwashing, the WHO 5 Moments, and When Soap Is Essential","When to use alcohol-based handrub versus soap and water, why alcohol fails against Clostridioides difficile spores and norovirus, the WHO 5 Moments for hand hygiene, correct technique and timing, and why hand hygiene is the single most effective infection-control measure.","2026-08-02","2026-08-03","general-microbiology",[],[],{"slug":122,"title":123,"description":124,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":125,"lastUpdatedDate":126,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":127,"tags":140},"laboratory-diagnosis-of-dengue-viral-infection","Dengue Virus: Why Second Infections Are More Dangerous and How Lab Diagnosis Works","\u003Cp>How antibody-dependent enhancement makes secondary dengue infection more severe, and which test; NS1, IgM, IgG, or PCR, to use and when.\u003C\u002Fp>","2016-02-23","2026-08-24",[128,131,134,137],{"question":129,"answer":130},"Why is a second dengue infection more dangerous than the first?","Prior infection with one dengue serotype produces cross-reactive IgG antibodies that bind but cannot neutralise a different serotype. These antibody-coated virus particles bind Fc receptors on monocytes and macrophages, facilitating entry into these cells rather than blocking infection. The resulting amplified viral replication and cytokine response drive the plasma leakage and haemorrhage of severe dengue.",{"question":132,"answer":133},"Which dengue diagnostic test should be ordered on day 3 of illness versus day 10?","On days 1–7 of illness, NS1 antigen detection or RT-PCR are the tests of choice because the virus is actively replicating and IgM may not yet be detectable. From day 5–7 onward, IgM ELISA becomes the preferred serological method. By day 10, IgM is detectable in over 99% of primary infections. IgG is useful for diagnosing secondary infection at any point during acute illness.",{"question":135,"answer":136},"Why is aspirin contraindicated in dengue?","Aspirin inhibits platelet function and can increase bleeding risk. In dengue, which already causes thrombocytopenia and potential haemorrhage, adding a platelet-function inhibitor worsens the bleeding risk. Paracetamol is the recommended antipyretic.",{"question":138,"answer":139},"Why was the Dengvaxia vaccine found to be harmful in some recipients?","Dengvaxia was found to increase severe dengue risk in seronegative recipients who had never been previously infected with dengue. Vaccination generated cross-reactive, non-neutralising antibodies against all four serotypes, effectively mimicking a primary dengue infection. When these recipients subsequently encountered natural dengue, the pre-existing vaccine-induced antibodies primed the ADE mechanism — enhancing rather than preventing severe disease. WHO now recommends pre-vaccination dengue serology screening.",[51],{"enabled":142,"threads":143,"total":144},true,[],0,[146,152,159,166,172,177,183,188,194,197,204],{"slug":147,"name":43,"description":148,"image":149,"body":150,"postCount":151},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",480,{"slug":153,"name":154,"description":155,"image":156,"body":157,"postCount":158},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":160,"name":161,"description":162,"image":163,"body":164,"postCount":165},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":167,"name":168,"description":162,"image":169,"body":170,"postCount":171},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":173,"name":174,"description":162,"image":42,"body":175,"postCount":176},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":178,"name":179,"description":180,"image":42,"body":181,"postCount":182},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":184,"name":185,"description":186,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":189,"name":190,"description":162,"image":191,"body":192,"postCount":193},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":195,"name":196,"description":186,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":198,"name":199,"description":200,"image":201,"body":202,"postCount":203},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":205,"name":206,"description":207,"image":208,"body":209,"postCount":187},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[211,218,224,229,234,239,243,247,250,255,259,264,268,273,278,282,286,290,295,299,303,307,311,316,320,324,328,332,337,342,346,350,354,359,363,367,371,375,379,383,387,391,395,399,403,407,411,415,420,424,428,432,436,440,444,448,452,456,460,464,468,472,476,480,484,488,492,496,499,503,506,509,512,515,518,521,524,526,529,532,535,538,541],{"slug":212,"name":213,"description":214,"image":215,"body":216,"postCount":217},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":219,"name":220,"description":221,"image":42,"body":222,"postCount":223},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":225,"name":226,"description":227,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":228},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":230,"name":231,"description":232,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":235,"name":236,"description":237,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":238},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":240,"name":241,"description":242,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":228},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":244,"name":245,"description":246,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":86,"name":248,"description":249,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":251,"name":252,"description":253,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":256,"name":257,"description":258,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":217},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":262,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":265,"name":266,"description":267,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":217},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":269,"name":270,"description":271,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":274,"name":275,"description":276,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":277},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":279,"name":280,"description":281,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":283,"name":284,"description":42,"image":42,"body":285,"postCount":176},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":287,"name":288,"description":42,"image":42,"body":289,"postCount":272},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":293,"image":42,"body":294,"postCount":254},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":111,"name":296,"description":297,"image":42,"body":298,"postCount":176},"PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":300,"name":301,"description":302,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":304,"name":305,"description":306,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":308,"name":309,"description":310,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":317,"name":318,"description":319,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":321,"name":322,"description":323,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":327,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":329,"name":330,"description":331,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":336},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":347,"name":348,"description":349,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":238},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":362,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":364,"name":365,"description":366,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":370,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":374,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":336},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":380,"name":381,"description":382,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":384,"name":385,"description":386,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":388,"name":389,"description":390,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":182},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":392,"name":393,"description":394,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":396,"name":397,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":400,"name":401,"description":402,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":410,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":217},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":419,"postCount":176},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":423,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":182},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":425,"name":426,"description":427,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":437,"name":438,"description":439,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":272},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":441,"name":442,"description":443,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":228},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":449,"name":450,"description":451,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":453,"name":454,"description":455,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":457,"name":458,"description":459,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":238},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":461,"name":462,"description":463,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":465,"name":466,"description":467,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":469,"name":470,"description":471,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":473,"name":474,"description":475,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":483,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":238},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":491,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":493,"name":494,"description":495,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":254},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":497,"name":498,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":187},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":500,"name":501,"description":502,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":504,"name":505,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":510,"name":511,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":516,"name":517,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":519,"name":520,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":522,"name":523,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":51,"name":525,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":527,"name":528,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":530,"name":531,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":336},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":533,"name":534,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":233},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":539,"name":540,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":542,"name":543,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]