[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fFdTac76k08dN7Mr9fszw3go3KW9FWAlYdqeuZ5u_lfI":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":272,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":335},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":71,"related":73,"comments":268},"ear-specimens-collection-transport-lab-diagnosis","Ear Specimens: Collection, Transport and Lab Diagnosis (Otitis Externa vs Otitis Media)","\u003Cp>Why an ear-canal swab answers otitis externa but not otitis media, how to sample a discharging ear without collecting canal flora, when tympanocentesis is needed, and why acute otitis media is usually not cultured.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-13","2026-08-14",false,"bacteriology","The single most useful thing to understand about ear specimens is that the outer ear and the middle ear are different places, and a swab of one does not answer a question about the other. An ear-canal swab samples otitis externa well. But in otitis media, the infection is behind the eardrum, and a canal swab collects the normal flora of the ear canal instead of the middle-ear pathogen. So the first decision in any ear specimen is: **which compartment is infected?**\n\nEar specimens are collected to diagnose **otitis externa (outer ear canal), otitis media (middle ear)**, and their chronic and suppurative forms. This article is about matching the specimen to the compartment and getting it to the lab uncontaminated.\n\n## Outer ear or middle ear: the decision that governs everything\n\n| Condition | Where the infection is | Correct specimen |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Otitis externa | Outer ear canal | Ear-canal swab of the discharge |\n| Acute otitis media (intact eardrum) | Middle ear, behind an intact eardrum | Usually no culture; tympanocentesis only in specific cases |\n| Otitis media with a perforated or draining eardrum | Middle ear, discharging through a perforation | Discharge sampled through the perforation, bypassing the canal |\n| Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) | Middle ear, chronic discharge through a perforation | Middle-ear discharge, collected through a speculum past the canal |\n\n**Otitis externa is the swab's territory.** The infection is in the canal, so a swab of the canal discharge is exactly right. Generally Nurse or clinician can collect this sample but for other conditions mentioned above ENT clinician is the appropriate person to collect sample.\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fear-specimen-outer-vs-middle.png\" alt=\"The eardrum separates the outer ear canal from the middle-ear cavity. A canal swab samples the outer canal and is the correct specimen for otitis externa, but it cannot cross the eardrum, so it does not sample the middle ear. Otitis media is reached by tympanocentesis through the drum, or by sampling discharge through a perforation.\" width=\"2720\" height=\"1760\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>The eardrum separates the outer ear canal from the middle-ear cavity. A canal swab samples the outer canal and is the correct specimen for otitis externa, but it cannot cross the eardrum, so it does not sample the middle ear. Otitis media is reached by tympanocentesis through the drum, or by sampling discharge through a perforation.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n**Otitis media is not, unless you can reach the middle-ear discharge directly.** If the eardrum is intact, there is nothing to swab from outside, and the specimen (if any) is obtained by tympanocentesis, a needle sample through the eardrum taken by an ENT clinician. If the eardrum is perforated and discharging, the middle-ear pus can be sampled, but only if you bypass the canal so you are not just collecting canal flora.\n\n## Why a plain canal swab fails in otitis media\n\nThe ear canal has its own normal flora (coagulase-negative staphylococci, diphtheroids, and others). Push a swab into a discharging ear without preparation and you collect that canal flora mixed with whatever is draining. The culture then grows canal commensals that mean nothing, or misattributes them as the cause. **That is why a naive canal swab in otitis media is close to useless.**\n\nThe fix is to sample the middle-ear discharge, not the canal:\n\n- Clean the outer canal first with 70% alcohol and let it dry for about half a minute, so the canal surface is as free of flora as possible.\n- Under good light and using an aural speculum, pass the swab through the speculum to the discharge coming through the perforation, avoiding contact with the canal walls.\n- **Collect two swabs where possible: one for the Gram smear, one for culture.**\n\n### Acute otitis media is usually not cultured\n\nIn routine acute otitis media with an intact eardrum, no specimen is collected. The diagnosis is clinical and treatment is empiric, because the likely pathogens ([*Streptococcus pneumoniae*](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fstreptococcus-pneumoniae-pneumococcus-disease-properties-pathogenesis-and-laboratory-diagnosis\u002F), [*Haemophilus influenzae*](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Flaboratory-diagnosis-of-haemophilus-influenza\u002F), [*Moraxella catarrhalis*](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmoraxella-catarrhalis\u002F)) are predictable.\n\nTympanocentesis is reserved for specific situations: a very sick or immunocompromised child, treatment failure, a neonate, or a research. Knowing that \"acute otitis media, no culture\" is the default prevents needless, contamination-prone canal swabs.\n\n### The rule people forget: no ear drops before the swab\n\nRecent topical antibiotic or antiseptic drops suppress the organisms and give a falsely negative or misleading culture. The standard is to avoid ear drops and other topical agents for a period before sampling, at least a few hours and ideally several days for chronic cases.\n\nIf drops have been used recently, note it on the request form, because a negative culture may reflect suppression rather than absence of infection.\n\n### Fungal ear infection\n\nOtomycosis (fungal otitis externa, often *Aspergillus* or *Candida*) is common, especially in hot, humid climates and after prolonged antibiotic drops. If fungal infection is suspected, mention that on the request so the lab sets up [Sabouraud agar ](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fsabouraud-dextrose-agar-sda-principle-composition-uses-colony-morphology\u002F)and a [KOH preparation](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fkoh-preparation-test-principle-procedure-results-uses\u002F), since a routine bacterial culture will miss it.\n\n## Transport\n\n- Deliver the swab to the laboratory as soon as possible, at room temperature.\n- If a delay is expected, place the swab in [Amies transport medium](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Famies-transport-medium\u002F) so it does not dry out.\n- A [liquid-based transport swab (such as an eSwab) ](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Feswab-types-and-uses\u002F)is a good option because it lets one collection serve Gram stain and culture.\n- [Refrigeration](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Flaboratory-refrigerator-temperature-and-storage\u002F) is generally unnecessary for a routine ear swab in transport medium; prompt room-temperature transport is the norm.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Outer ear, swab it. Middle ear, you cannot swab from outside.** Otitis externa lives in the canal, so a canal swab is right. Otitis media lives behind the eardrum, so a canal swab collects the wrong flora.\n\n**Clean the canal, bypass the canal.** For a discharging middle ear, wipe the canal with alcohol first, then use a speculum to reach the discharge through the perforation without touching the canal walls. Otherwise you culture canal commensals.\n\n**Acute otitis media, no culture.** Intact eardrum, predictable etiological agents, empiric treatment. Tympanocentesis only for the sick, the failing, or the newborn.\n\n**No drops before the swab.** Topical antibiotics suppress the organism. Collect before drops, and if drops were used, mention so on the form.\n\n**Hot, humid, or long antibiotic use? Think fungus.** Otomycosis needs Sabouraud agar and KOH, so flag it or the bacterial culture will miss it.\n\n## Key exam facts in one table\n\n| Point | Fact |\n| --- | --- |\n| Otitis externa specimen | Ear-canal swab of the discharge |\n| Otitis externa pathogens | *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, *Staphylococcus aureus* |\n| Acute otitis media | Usually no culture; clinical diagnosis, empiric treatment |\n| AOM pathogens | *Streptococcus pneumoniae*, *Haemophilus influenzae*, *Moraxella catarrhalis* |\n| Middle-ear specimen (intact drum) | Tympanocentesis, by ENT clinician |\n| Middle-ear specimen (perforated) | Discharge through the perforation, bypassing the canal |\n| CSOM pathogens | *Pseudomonas*, *Proteus*, *S. aureus*, anaerobes |\n| Why not a plain canal swab in OM | Collects canal normal flora, not middle-ear pathogen |\n| Canal prep | Clean with 70% alcohol, dry, then sample via speculum |\n| Number of swabs | Two (smear plus culture) where possible |\n| Drops rule | No topical antibiotics before sampling; note if used |\n| Fungal ear infection | Otomycosis (*Aspergillus*, *Candida*); request Sabouraud and KOH |\n| Transport | Amies or liquid swab, room temperature, prompt |\n| Refrigerate? | Not routinely needed |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"An ear swab is an ear swab, so why does it matter which ear condition?\"** Because the outer ear and middle ear are separate compartments. A canal swab samples otitis externa correctly, but in otitis media the pathogen is behind the eardrum, and the canal swab collects canal flora instead. The specimen must match the infected compartment.\n\n**\"There is discharge coming out, so I can just swab it, right?\"** Only if you bypass the canal. A swab pushed into the canal picks up the canal's normal flora along with the discharge. Clean the canal with alcohol first and sample the discharge through the perforation using a speculum, avoiding the canal walls.\n\n**\"Why isn't acute otitis media cultured?\"** Because the eardrum is usually intact (nothing to swab from outside), the likely organisms are predictable, and treatment is empiric. Tympanocentesis is reserved for severe, failing, immunocompromised, or neonatal cases, not routine acute otitis media.\n\n**\"The patient has been using ear drops, does that affect the culture?\"** Yes. Topical antibiotics suppress the organisms and can make the culture falsely negative. Collect before drops where possible, and note recent drop use on the request so a negative result is interpreted correctly.\n\n**\"The culture grew nothing, but the ear is clearly infected, why?\"** Common reasons are recent antibiotic drops suppressing growth, a fungal cause that a bacterial culture cannot detect (request Sabouraud and KOH), or anaerobes in chronic disease that need appropriate handling.\n\n### References and further reading\n\n1. Tille PM. *Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology.* 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.\n2. Leber AL, editor. *Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook.* 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016. DOI: 10.1128\u002F9781683670438.CMPH\n3. Procop GW, Church DL, Hall GS, et al. *Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology.* 7th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2017.",[50,53,56,59,62,65,68],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>Why can't an ear-canal swab diagnose otitis media?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In otitis media the infection is behind the eardrum, in the middle ear. A canal swab samples the outer ear canal and its normal flora, not the middle-ear pathogen. Unless the eardrum is perforated and the middle-ear discharge can be sampled directly, a canal swab answers the wrong question.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>How is a discharging middle ear sampled without collecting canal flora?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Clean the outer canal first with 70% alcohol and let it dry, then use an aural speculum to reach the discharge coming through the perforation, avoiding contact with the canal walls. Collect two swabs where possible, one for the smear and one for culture.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>Why is acute otitis media usually not cultured?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The eardrum is typically intact, so there is nothing to sample from outside, and the likely organisms (\u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Haemophilus influenzae\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Moraxella catarrhalis\u003C\u002Fem>) are predictable enough for empiric treatment. Tympanocentesis is reserved for severe, failing, immunocompromised, or neonatal cases.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>What organisms cause otitis externa versus otitis media?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Otitis externa is commonly caused by \u003Cem>Pseudomonas aeruginosa\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Staphylococcus aureus\u003C\u002Fem>. Acute otitis media is caused by \u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Haemophilus influenzae\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Moraxella catarrhalis\u003C\u002Fem>. Chronic suppurative otitis media often yields \u003Cem>Pseudomonas\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Proteus\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>S. aureus\u003C\u002Fem>, and anaerobes.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>Do ear drops affect the culture?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. Recent topical antibiotic or antiseptic drops suppress the organisms and can produce a falsely negative culture. Collect the specimen before drops where possible, and note any recent use on the request form.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>When should a fungal ear infection be suspected, and how does that change the specimen?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Suspect otomycosis (often \u003Cem>Aspergillus\u003C\u002Fem> or \u003Cem>Candida\u003C\u002Fem>) in hot, humid climates or after prolonged antibiotic drops. Request fungal culture on Sabouraud agar and a KOH preparation, because a routine bacterial culture will miss the fungus.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>How should an ear swab be transported?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>As soon as possible, at room temperature, in Amies transport medium or a liquid-based transport swab so it does not dry out. Routine refrigeration is not needed.\u003C\u002Fp>",[72],"specimen-collection-transport",[74,98,122,149,159,184,207,245],{"slug":75,"title":76,"description":77,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":78,"lastUpdatedDate":79,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":80,"tags":96},"streptococcus-pneumoniae-pneumococcus-disease-properties-pathogenesis-and-laboratory-diagnosis","Streptococcus pneumoniae: Properties, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis","Streptococcus pneumoniae morphology, virulence factors like pneumolysin and capsule, and the optochin and bile solubility tests used for lab diagnosis.","2013-05-13","2026-08-02",[81,84,87,90,93],{"question":82,"answer":83},"\u003Cp>Why is \u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> alpha-hemolytic like viridans streptococci, yet far more dangerous?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Hemolysis pattern alone doesn't reflect virulence. \u003Cem>S. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem>'s danger comes from its polysaccharide capsule (the major anti-phagocytic virulence factor) and pneumolysin, a pore-forming toxin that damages nearly any host cell containing cholesterol. Viridans streptococci lack a capsule and are far less invasive as a result.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":85,"answer":86},"What is the difference between bile solubility and bile esculin tests?","\u003Cp>Bile solubility uses bile salts to lyse \u003Cem>S. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> colonies by triggering the organism's own autolysin, confirming pneumococcus. Bile esculin tests whether an organism can hydrolyze esculin in the presence of bile, used to identify \u003Cem>Enterococcus \u003C\u002Fem>and Group D streptococci. Same word \"bile,\" completely different organisms and mechanisms.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":88,"answer":89},"Why does the pneumococcal vaccine need to cover so many different serotypes?","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>S. pneumoniae \u003C\u002Fem>has more than 90 distinct capsular serotypes, and immunity to the capsule is type-specific. Antibodies raised against one serotype's capsule don't protect against a different serotype, so vaccines must include multiple capsular polysaccharides to provide broad coverage.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":91,"answer":92},"\u003Cp>Can\u003Cem> Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> be part of normal flora without causing disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. \u003Cem>S. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> commonly colonizes the upper respiratory tract harmlessly. Disease occurs when the organism spreads beyond its normal niche, such as into the lungs, bloodstream, or meninges.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":94,"answer":95},"Why does CSF show low glucose in pneumococcal meningitis?","Bacteria in the CSF consume glucose for their own metabolism, while the accompanying inflammatory response draws in white blood cells, producing the classic combination of high WBC and low glucose seen in bacterial meningitis.",[97],"gram-positive-cocci",{"slug":99,"title":100,"description":101,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":102,"lastUpdatedDate":103,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":104,"tags":120},"laboratory-diagnosis-of-haemophilus-influenza","Haemophilus influenzae: Properties, Virulence Factors, Diseases, and Lab Diagnosis","Haemophilus influenzae lab diagnosis: Hib vs NTHi, virulence factors, chocolate agar culture, X and V factor identification, serotyping, treatment, and beta-lactamase\u002FBLNAR resistance","2013-07-30","2026-08-03",[105,108,111,114,117],{"question":106,"answer":107},"Why is chocolate agar used instead of blood agar for Haemophilus influenzae?","H. influenzae needs both hemin (X) and NAD (V). On plain blood agar, hemin stays locked in intact red cells and NAD is degraded by red-cell enzymes. Gentle heating to make chocolate agar lyses the cells (freeing hemin) and inactivates those enzymes (sparing NAD), so both factors become available.",{"question":109,"answer":110},"What is the difference between Hib and nontypeable H. influenzae?","Hib is encapsulated (type b PRP capsule), causes invasive disease such as meningitis and epiglottitis, and is prevented by the Hib conjugate vaccine. Nontypeable strains have no capsule, cause mostly mucosal infections (otitis media, sinusitis, COPD exacerbations), and are not covered by the vaccine.",{"question":112,"answer":113},"Why must specimens for H. influenzae never be refrigerated?","The organism is extremely cold-sensitive and dies at refrigeration temperatures before it can be cultured. CSF and blood cultures must be transported and processed at room temperature or 37°C.",{"question":115,"answer":116},"What is a BLNAR strain and why does it matter?","BLNAR stands for beta-lactamase-negative, ampicillin-resistant. These strains resist ampicillin through altered penicillin-binding proteins rather than beta-lactamase, so the nitrocefin test is negative but ampicillin still fails. They require alternative therapy and are an emerging concern in parts of Asia.",{"question":118,"answer":119},"Does the Hib vaccine protect against all Haemophilus influenzae infections?","No. It protects only against type b. Nontypeable strains and non-b serotypes are not covered, which is why H. influenzae mucosal infections still occur in vaccinated people.",[121],"haemophilus",{"slug":123,"title":124,"description":125,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":126,"lastUpdatedDate":127,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":128,"tags":147},"moraxella-catarrhalis","Moraxella catarrhalis: Identification, How to Tell It from Neisseria, and Disease","\u003Cp>How \u003Cem>Moraxella catarrhalis\u003C\u002Fem> causes otitis media, sinusitis, and respiratory infection, and how the laboratory tells it apart from \u003Cem>Neisseria\u003C\u002Fem>, since the two look identical on Gram stain as Gram-negative diplococci.\u003C\u002Fp>","2021-05-27","2026-08-06",[129,132,135,138,141,144],{"question":130,"answer":131},"\u003Cp>How do you tell Moraxella catarrhalis from Neisseria?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They look identical on Gram stain (both Gram-negative diplococci), so the distinction is biochemical. \u003Cem>M. catarrhalis\u003C\u002Fem> produces acid from no sugars (asaccharolytic), is DNase-positive, butyrate-positive, and nitrate-positive, and grows on plain blood agar. \u003Cem>Neisseria\u003C\u002Fem> ferments at least glucose, is DNase-negative, and is more fastidious.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":133,"answer":134},"\u003Cp>Is Moraxella catarrhalis a Gram-positive or Gram-negative organism?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Gram-negative. It is a Gram-negative diplococcus that closely resembles \u003Cem>Neisseria\u003C\u002Fem> under the microscope.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":136,"answer":137},"\u003Cp>What diseases does Moraxella catarrhalis cause?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In children, otitis media (middle ear infection) and sinusitis; it is one of the three main causes along with \u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Haemophilus influenzae\u003C\u002Fem>. In older adults with chronic lung disease, it causes bronchitis and bronchopneumonia. Rarely, it causes invasive disease.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":139,"answer":140},"\u003Cp>Why does penicillin not work against Moraxella catarrhalis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because nearly all strains produce a beta-lactamase, an enzyme that destroys penicillin and ampicillin. Treatment uses beta-lactamase-stable drugs such as amoxicillin-clavulanate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":142,"answer":143},"\u003Cp>Why is Moraxella catarrhalis asaccharolytic important?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because it separates \u003Cem>M. catarrhalis\u003C\u002Fem> from \u003Cem>Neisseria\u003C\u002Fem>. \u003Cem>Neisseria\u003C\u002Fem> species ferment sugars (at least glucose), while \u003Cem>M. catarrhalis\u003C\u002Fem> produces acid from none. An organism that looks like \u003Cem>Neisseria\u003C\u002Fem> but ferments no sugars is likely \u003Cem>Moraxella\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":145,"answer":146},"\u003Cp>What does a Moraxella catarrhalis colony look like?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Grey-white, dry, and brittle, and it can be pushed intact across the agar with a loop, sometimes described as a \"hockey-puck\" colony. This is a useful clue that separates it from the buttery colonies of \u003Cem>Neisseria\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",[148],"gram-negative-cocci",{"slug":150,"title":151,"description":152,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":153,"createdDate":154,"lastUpdatedDate":103,"draft":46,"category":155,"image":42,"faq":156,"tags":157},"sabouraud-dextrose-agar-sda-principle-composition-uses-colony-morphology","Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA): Composition, Principle, Uses, and Colony Morphology","Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) is the standard medium for fungal isolation. Learn its composition, how its acidic pH selects for fungi, colony morphology of dermatophytes and yeasts, cycloheximide modification, and clinical uses.","Nisha Rijal","2015-07-05","culture-media",[],[158],"fungal-culture-media",{"slug":160,"title":161,"description":162,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":163,"lastUpdatedDate":164,"draft":46,"category":165,"image":42,"faq":166,"tags":182},"koh-preparation-test-principle-procedure-results-uses","KOH Mount: Principle, Procedure, Results, Uses","KOH preparation: principle, procedure, 10% concentration rationale, organism-specific findings (dermatophytes, Candida, Mucorales, Coccidioides), troubleshooting artifacts vs true fungal elements, and comparison with calcofluor white.","2016-04-30","2026-07-28","mycology",[167,170,173,176,179],{"question":168,"answer":169},"Is KOH a stain?","No. KOH is a clearing agent, not a stain. It dissolves keratin and other tissue material so that the fungus, which resists the alkali, becomes visible against a cleared background. It does not color or bind the fungus the way true stains such as PAS, GMS, or calcofluor white do.",{"question":171,"answer":172},"Why is 10% KOH used for skin but 20% for nails?","The concentration has to be strong enough to dissolve keratin in a reasonable time without distorting the fungal elements. Skin scrapings clear quickly in 10% KOH. Nails are far more heavily keratinized, so they need 20% (sometimes with gentle warming) to clear in a practical timeframe.",{"question":174,"answer":175},"What is the most common false-positive in KOH microscopy?","The outlines of normal skin cell borders, sometimes called \"mosaic fungus.\" These can mimic pseudohyphae. The distinguishing feature is that true hyphae cross over cell borders, whereas the artifact follows the cell boundaries exactly and does not cross into neighboring cells.",{"question":177,"answer":178},"How can I tell true hyphae from a cotton fiber?","True hyphae have a consistent width, show true branching, and usually show septa (cross-walls). Cotton and textile fibers are typically wider, do not branch, have sharp broken ends, and often shine brightly (birefringent) under polarized light. When in doubt, add calcofluor white, fibers do not fluoresce the way chitin-containing fungi do.",{"question":180,"answer":181},"Does a positive KOH mount identify the fungal species?","No. KOH confirms that fungal elements are present and can suggest a broad category (for example, septate hyphae versus broad aseptate hyphae versus yeast with pseudohyphae), but it does not identify the species. Culture is needed for definitive identification.",[183],"fungal-diagnostics",{"slug":185,"title":186,"description":187,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":153,"createdDate":188,"lastUpdatedDate":189,"draft":46,"category":155,"image":42,"faq":190,"tags":206},"amies-transport-medium","Amies Transport Medium: Composition, Uses, and Why It Replaced Stuart's Medium","Why a fragile gonococcus swab can die before it ever reaches the lab, the design fix that made Amies better than Stuart's medium, and when to choose the charcoal-free version instead.","2019-12-03","2026-07-05",[191,194,197,200,203],{"question":192,"answer":193},"What is Amies transport medium used for?","Preserving swab specimens, such as throat, wound, vaginal, and genital swabs, in a stable, non-multiplying state during transport to the microbiology laboratory.",{"question":195,"answer":196},"Why did Amies medium replace Stuart's medium?","Stuart's medium used glycerophosphate as a buffer, but some organisms could use it as a carbon source and keep multiplying during transport. Amies replaced it with an inorganic phosphate buffer to remove that problem.",{"question":198,"answer":199},"When should Amies without charcoal be used instead of the charcoal version?","Specifically for Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma recovery, since charcoal, helpful for most other fastidious organisms, actually inhibits recovery of these two.",{"question":201,"answer":202},"Can Amies transport medium be frozen for longer storage?","No. Freezing causes ice crystals to rupture bacterial cells, killing the organism. Refrigeration, not freezing, is the correct way to slow deterioration during transport.",{"question":204,"answer":205},"How long can a specimen sit in Amies medium before processing?","Ideally within 6 hours, and no later than 24 hours, maintaining a cold chain throughout.",[72],{"slug":208,"title":209,"description":210,"seoTitle":211,"seoDescription":42,"author":212,"createdDate":213,"lastUpdatedDate":214,"draft":46,"category":215,"image":42,"faq":216,"tags":244},"eswab-types-and-uses","Liquid-Based Swab Transport Systems (eSwab): Types, Uses, and Limitations","How liquid Amies transport systems like eSwab let one collection serve culture, Gram stain, and PCR, which formats exist, and the specimens they are not suitable for.","Liquid-Based Swab Transport Systems: How eSwab Works and When to Use It","Sushmita Baniya","2022-11-03","2026-07-23","lab-equipment",[217,220,223,226,229,232,235,238,241],{"question":218,"answer":219},"What is eSwab and what does the E stand for?","eSwab is a liquid-based swab transport system consisting of a nylon flocked swab and 1 mL of liquid Amies medium in a sterile screw-cap tube. The E stands for elute, referring to the sample releasing off the swab into the liquid rather than remaining trapped in the fibers.",{"question":221,"answer":222},"Can I use eSwab for viral specimens such as influenza or SARS-CoV-2?","No. Liquid Amies is a bacterial maintenance medium and lacks the protein stabilizers and antimicrobials that viral transport medium provides. Viral specimens require viral transport medium or universal transport medium. The two systems look very similar, so check the medium stated on the label rather than relying on the appearance of the swab.",{"question":224,"answer":225},"How long do organisms survive in a liquid Amies system?","Up to 48 hours at either room temperature (20 to 25°C) or refrigerator temperature (4 to 8°C), validated against CLSI standard M40-A2. Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the exception and should be processed within 24 hours, since it is the most fragile of the commonly transported pathogens.",{"question":227,"answer":228},"How many tests can be run from one eSwab collection?","Because the specimen becomes a liquid suspension, it can be divided into aliquots, typically up to ten from the 1 mL supplied. One collection can therefore serve Gram stain, culture, rapid antigen testing, and molecular assays, whereas a dry swab is usually spent on the first test performed.",{"question":230,"answer":231},"Why is the device sterilized by gamma irradiation?","Sterilization during manufacture ensures the tube and swab arrive sterile and ready to use, and it destroys any residual nucleic acid in the device. That matters for molecular testing, because contaminating DNA in a collection device could produce a false positive. It happens before the swab ever meets a patient and has no effect on the specimen collected later.",{"question":233,"answer":234},"What is the difference between liquid Amies and gel Amies?","Gel Amies holds the specimen within the swab fibers, so it must be eluted at the bench and only part is recovered. Liquid Amies elutes the sample at the moment of collection, recovering far more of it and allowing multiple aliquots. Gel remains cheaper and adequate for a routine single-request bacterial swab; liquid earns its cost for multi-test requests, fastidious organisms, and molecular or automated workflows.",{"question":236,"answer":237},"Is a liquid-based swab as good as a tissue sample?","No. For anaerobic culture, deep wounds, and fungal infection, tissue or aspirated fluid remains the preferred specimen. Liquid-based systems substantially improve what a swab can deliver, but they do not make a swab equivalent to tissue.",{"question":239,"answer":240},"What is the breakpoint on the swab shaft?","A scored line that allows the shaft to be snapped cleanly once the swab is inside the tube, so the cap seals properly and the collector's fingers never enter the tube. Bend the shaft against the tube rim at the mark, holding the tube away from your face.",{"question":242,"answer":243},"Which eSwab format should I use for a pediatric or nasopharyngeal sample?","The single minitip format, which has a smaller flocked tip suited to narrow or small collection sites, pediatric patients, and urethral sampling. The single regular format suits routine adult collection from throat, wound, ear, eye, and genital sites.",[72],{"slug":246,"title":247,"description":248,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":164,"lastUpdatedDate":249,"draft":46,"category":215,"image":42,"faq":250,"tags":266},"laboratory-refrigerator-temperature-and-storage","Laboratory Refrigerator: Temperature, What to Store at Each, and Storage Rules","Laboratory refrigerator temperatures explained, which reagents, sera, vaccines, and blood products belong at 2-8 degrees C, why freezing destroys some of them, and the storage rules that keep samples usable. A practical guide for lab science students.","2026-08-12",[251,254,257,260,263],{"question":252,"answer":253},"What temperature is a laboratory refrigerator set to?","A laboratory refrigerator is kept at 2–8°C, with about 4°C as the usual set point. This range slows chemical reactions, enzyme activity, and microbial growth while staying above freezing, which protects reagents, sera, vaccines, and blood products that ice crystals would damage.",{"question":255,"answer":256},"Why are some reagents and vaccines refrigerated instead of frozen?","Freezing forms ice crystals that denature proteins and rupture cells, which destroys many control sera, antibodies, and vaccines. For these items, 2–8°C preserves activity while freezing would ruin them, so colder is not automatically better.",{"question":258,"answer":259},"Why are platelets not stored in the refrigerator?","Platelets are stored at 20–24°C (room temperature) with continuous gentle agitation. Refrigeration damages platelet function and stillness causes them to clump, so unlike red cells and plasma, platelets are never refrigerated.",{"question":261,"answer":262},"Why should nothing sensitive be stored in the refrigerator door?","The door is the warmest and most temperature-variable part of the refrigerator, because it warms every time the fridge is opened. Sensitive items such as controls, sera, vaccines, and blood should be kept on the internal shelves where the temperature is stable.",{"question":264,"answer":265},"What is the difference between a laboratory refrigerator and a blood bank refrigerator?","A blood bank refrigerator is a specialized laboratory refrigerator held at 2–6°C with a tighter temperature tolerance, a continuous temperature log, and an audible alarm. The stricter monitoring exists because a temperature error can make blood unsafe to transfuse.",[267],"laboratory-storage-and-preservation",{"enabled":269,"threads":270,"total":271},true,[],0,[273,279,286,292,298,303,309,314,320,323,329],{"slug":274,"name":43,"description":275,"image":276,"body":277,"postCount":278},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":280,"name":281,"description":282,"image":283,"body":284,"postCount":285},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":287,"name":212,"description":288,"image":289,"body":290,"postCount":291},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":293,"name":294,"description":288,"image":295,"body":296,"postCount":297},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":299,"name":300,"description":288,"image":42,"body":301,"postCount":302},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":304,"name":305,"description":306,"image":42,"body":307,"postCount":308},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":310,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":288,"image":317,"body":318,"postCount":319},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":321,"name":322,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":324,"name":153,"description":325,"image":326,"body":327,"postCount":328},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":330,"name":331,"description":332,"image":333,"body":334,"postCount":313},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[336,342,348,352,357,362,366,370,374,379,383,388,392,397,401,405,409,413,418,423,427,431,435,440,444,448,452,456,461,466,470,474,478,482,485,489,493,497,501,505,509,513,517,520,524,528,531,534,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,571,575,579,583,587,591,595,599,603,607,611,615,618,622],{"slug":148,"name":337,"description":338,"image":339,"body":340,"postCount":341},"Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":42,"body":346,"postCount":347},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":97,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":353,"name":354,"description":355,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":358,"name":359,"description":360,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":367,"name":368,"description":369,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":347},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":375,"name":376,"description":377,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":380,"name":381,"description":382,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":384,"name":385,"description":386,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":396},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":72,"name":398,"description":399,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":400},"Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":402,"name":403,"description":404,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":406,"name":407,"description":42,"image":42,"body":408,"postCount":302},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":410,"name":411,"description":42,"image":42,"body":412,"postCount":396},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":414,"name":415,"description":416,"image":42,"body":417,"postCount":378},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":42,"body":422,"postCount":302},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":439},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":441,"name":442,"description":443,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":449,"name":450,"description":451,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":453,"name":454,"description":455,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":457,"name":458,"description":459,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":460},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":462,"name":463,"description":464,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":467,"name":468,"description":469,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":471,"name":472,"description":473,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":475,"name":476,"description":477,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":308},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":479,"name":480,"description":481,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":158,"name":483,"description":484,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":486,"name":487,"description":488,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":490,"name":491,"description":492,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":396},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":494,"name":495,"description":496,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":460},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":500,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":502,"name":503,"description":504,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":506,"name":507,"description":508,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":510,"name":511,"description":512,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":308},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":514,"name":515,"description":516,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":121,"name":518,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":519},"Haemophilus",3,{"slug":521,"name":522,"description":523,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":525,"name":526,"description":527,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":347},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":183,"name":529,"description":530,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":267,"name":532,"description":533,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":535,"name":536,"description":537,"image":42,"body":538,"postCount":302},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":550,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":396},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":297},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":351},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":572,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":582,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":519},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":584,"name":585,"description":586,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":588,"name":589,"description":590,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":592,"name":593,"description":594,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":465},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":596,"name":597,"description":598,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":600,"name":601,"description":602,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":604,"name":605,"description":606,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":302},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":610,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":378},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":612,"name":613,"description":614,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":616,"name":617,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":619,"name":620,"description":621,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":356},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":519},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]