[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fYoIyDALWyzkVCWom3McKsLIfMVxOQAwVMTiwBXOZLUk":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":78,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":143},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":71,"related":73,"comments":74},"central-dogma-and-the-genetic-code","Central Dogma and the Genetic Code: Notes, Diagram, and Codon Chart","The central dogma explained for microbiology students: DNA to RNA to protein, the full codon chart, and the antibiotic targets on each step you get tested on. Clear notes with diagrams.",null,"Ashma Shrestha","2023-11-30","2026-08-15",false,"molecular-biology","When a patient has drug-resistant tuberculosis, the reason often comes down to a single changed letter in the bacterium's DNA. That one change alters an RNA copy, which alters one protein, and rifampicin can no longer bind. To understand how a one-letter change becomes a treatment failure, you need the central dogma: the simple rule for how a cell turns stored DNA into working proteins.\n\nThis page covers the central dogma and the genetic code together, because they answer two halves of the same question. The central dogma tells you the **path** information takes (DNA to RNA to protein). The genetic code tells you the **rules** the cell reads along that path (which three-letter unit means which amino acid).\n\n![Central Dogma and Genetic Code](\u002Fblogs\u002FCentral-Dogma-and-genetic-code.png)Figure 1: Central Dogma and Genetic Code\n\n## Central Dogma\n\nThe central dogma is the flow of genetic information in a cell, normally from DNA to RNA to protein. Francis Crick first stated it in 1957 and published it in detail in 1958, and it remains a core idea in molecular biology. It explains how a cell stores its instructions, copies them, and uses them to build proteins.\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fcd-preview.png\" alt=\"Central dogma of molecular biology flow diagram showing DNA to RNA to protein, with replication, transcription, and translation labeled, and the antibiotic class that blocks each step: fluoroquinolones at replication, rifampicin at transcription, and ribosome-targeting antibiotics at translation.\" width=\"820\" height=\"460\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>Figure 2: The central dogma. DNA is copied (replication), read into mRNA (transcription), and translated into protein. Each step is a target for a different antibiotic class.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n**DNA replication:** DNA makes an exact copy of itself before a cell divides, so each daughter cell receives the same genetic information.\n\n**Transcription:** One segment of DNA acts as a template to build a matching RNA molecule. This messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the instructions from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes.\n\n**Translation:** The ribosome reads the mRNA and builds a protein. Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings each amino acid in the order the mRNA specifies, and the ribosome joins them into a chain.\n\n**The classic dogma describes a one-way flow: DNA to RNA to protein.** Some known exceptions exist. Retroviruses such as HIV use reverse transcriptase to copy RNA back into DNA, and some RNA viruses copy RNA directly into more RNA. Gene regulation adds further layers, including RNA processing and the action of non-coding RNAs. These do not break the dogma; they extend it.\n\n## Genetic Code\n\nIt is a set of rules that specifies how the information in DNA and RNA translates into the sequence of amino acids to form proteins. It’s the language the cell uses to read the instructions in the genetic material and produce the proteins that carry out various bodily functions. The genetic code is universal and standard to almost all living organisms, from bacteria to humans.\n\nUnderstanding the genetic code is essential for deciphering the instructions encoded in DNA and RNA and predicting the amino acid sequence of proteins based on the genetic information. This knowledge has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of genetics and molecular biology and has practical applications in fields like genetic engineering and biotechnology.\n\nSo, do you remember the nucleotides? They are A-adenosine, T-thymine, C-cytosine, and G-guanine. Thymine (T) in DNA is replaced by uracil (U) in RNA. So, the codons are formed by the four nucleotides in RNA (A, U, C, and G).\n\nA codon is three nucleotides read together. With four possible nucleotides in each of the three positions, there are 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 possible codons. **Sixty-one of these code for amino acids. The remaining three (UAA, UAG, UGA) are stop codons**. The codon **AUG is special:** it codes for methionine and also acts as the start signal. Codons are always read on the mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction.\n\n### Key features of the Genetic Code\n\n1. **Codons:** The genetic code is read in groups of three nucleotides (triplets) on the mRNA molecule. Each triplet of nucleotides is called a codon. There are 64 possible codons (4 nucleotide options for each of the three positions in a codon), and each codon relates to a specific amino acid to start or stop protein synthesis.\n2. **Start Codon:** The codon AUG serves as the start codon, indicating the beginning of protein synthesis. It also codes for methionine amino acids.\n3. **Stop Codons:** There are three stop codons (UAA, UAG, and UGA), which signal the termination of protein synthesis. The ribosome releases the newly synthesized protein when it interacts with a stop codon.\n4. **Amino Acid Assignments:** Each of the 64 codons is associated with a specific amino acid or a signal for translation initiation or termination. For example, the codon UUU codes for the amino acid phenylalanine, while UGA is a stop codon.\n5. **Redundancy:** The genetic code is degenerate or redundant, meaning that more than one codon specifies most amino acids. This redundancy provides some robustness to the system, as errors or mutations in the DNA sequence may not always result in a change in the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein.\n6. **Universality:** The genetic code is nearly universal across all known life forms, with only minor variations. This universal code suggests a common evolutionary origin for all living organisms.\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fthe-standard-genetic-code.png\" alt=\"The Standard Genetic Codes\" width=\"746\" height=\"627\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>Figure 3: The standard genetic code. Read the first base on the left, the second base across the top, and the third base on the right to find the amino acid for any of the 64 codons. AUG starts translation; UAA, UAG, and UGA stop it.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n## Relation between Central Dogma and Genetic Code\n\nCentral dogma and genetic code are closely related concepts of molecular biology. This close relation is due to both concepts describing the flow of genetic information within living organisms.\n\nThe following points describe the relation between genetic code and central dogma in brief:\n\n### Genetic Code and Transcription\n\n- Transcription is a part of the processes in central dogma. It involves the conversion of genetic information from DNA to RNA. Here, the genetic code plays a crucial role.\n- A specific segment of DNA is a template for synthesizing a complementary RNA molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA).\n- The genetic code decides how the information in the DNA transcribes into the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA, following the rules of the genetic code.\n\n### Genetic Code and Translation\n\n- Another critical process of central dogma, translation, synthesizes protein using the information encoded in mRNA.\n- The genetic code is vital in translation as it specifies the relationship between codons and the amino acids they represent.\n- With their specific anticodons, transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are recognized and paired with mRNA codons according to the genetic code. Each tRNA carries the corresponding amino acid, allowing the ribosome to assemble the amino acids correctly to produce a protein.\n\nIn summary, the genetic code governs how genetic information is transcribed from DNA to mRNA and then translated into proteins, the functional molecules in the cell. It is an integral part of the central dogma, which outlines the flow of genetic information from DNA replication to transcription and translation. Together, these concepts provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how genetic information is stored, processed, and expressed in living organisms.\n\n## Why the central dogma is on your pharmacology exam\n\nEach step of the central dogma is a target for a different group of antibiotics. Bacteria run the same DNA-to-RNA-to-protein flow you do, but their enzymes and ribosomes differ enough that drugs can hit the bacterial version while mostly sparing yours. This is why the dogma is worth memorizing: it organizes half of your antibacterial pharmacology into one picture.\n\nThe rule is simple. Find the step, and you have found the drug class.\n\n**Key exam facts in one table**\n\n| Step of the central dogma | Bacterial target | Antibiotic class (examples) | Memory anchor |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Replication (DNA copied) | DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV | Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) | \"Quinolones unwind the copy machine\" |\n| Transcription (DNA to RNA) | Bacterial RNA polymerase | Rifampicin (rifamycins) | \"Rifampicin reads the R in RNA\" |\n| Translation, 30S subunit | 30S ribosomal subunit | Aminoglycosides (gentamicin), tetracyclines | \"Buy AT 30\" (Aminoglycosides, Tetracyclines) |\n| Translation, 50S subunit | 50S ribosomal subunit | Macrolides (azithromycin), chloramphenicol, linezolid, clindamycin | \"CCELL at 50\" (Chloramphenicol, Clindamycin, Erythromycin\u002Fmacrolides, Linezolid, Lincosamides) |\n\nNote the direction of resistance too. A single DNA mutation (replication level) can change the shape of RNA polymerase so that rifampicin no longer binds. That is exactly the rifampicin resistance a GeneXpert test detects directly from sputum. One changed letter, read forward through the dogma, becomes a clinical resistance result.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**The dogma direction.** Picture a one-way street: DNA to RNA to protein. You can copy the street map (replication), read it aloud (transcription), and follow it to a building (translation). You cannot turn a finished building back into a map, which is why the reverse steps are called exceptions and need a special enzyme.\n\n**Start and stop codons.** Start is AUG, and A-U-G are the first three vowels-then-G you reach going down a keyboard; AUG also spells the start of \"August,\" the start of a month. Stops are UAA, UAG, UGA. Say them as \"U Are Away, U Are Gone, U Go Away.\" All three begin with U, none code an amino acid.\n\n**Degeneracy, said as a self-check:** if 61 codons code only 20 amino acids, does each amino acid get one codon? No. Most get several. That surplus is degeneracy, and it is why a silent mutation can change a codon without changing the protein.\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"Crick discovered the genetic code.\"** He did not. Crick proposed the central dogma. The code itself was cracked by Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich Matthaei in 1961, then completed with Har Gobind Khorana and Robert Holley, who shared the 1968 Nobel Prize. Keep the two contributions separate; exam questions test exactly this split.\n\n**Codon vs anticodon.** The codon is on the mRNA. The anticodon is on the tRNA and pairs with it. Both are three nucleotides, which is why they get swapped. If the question mentions mRNA, it wants the codon.\n\n**Reading direction.** Codons are read 5' to 3' on the mRNA. Writing a codon backward flips the amino acid you get.\n\n**\"Universal\" is not \"identical everywhere.\"** The code is nearly universal. Human mitochondria and a few organisms read a small number of codons differently. On an exam, \"the genetic code is universal\" is treated as true unless the question specifically asks about mitochondrial or exceptional codes.\n\n**Degenerate does not mean ambiguous.** One amino acid can have several codons (degeneracy). But one codon never codes for more than one amino acid. The ambiguity runs one way only.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Crick F. On protein synthesis. Symp Soc Exp Biol. 1958;12:138-163. (Original statement of the central dogma.)\n2. Crick F. Central dogma of molecular biology. Nature. 1970;227(5258):561-563. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002F227561a0>\n3. Nirenberg MW, Matthaei JH. The dependence of cell-free protein synthesis in E. coli upon naturally occurring or synthetic polyribonucleotides. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1961;47(10):1588-1602. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1073\u002Fpnas.47.10.1588>\n4. Mercadante AA, Dimri M, Mohiuddin SS. Biochemistry, Replication and Transcription. In: StatPearls \\[Internet\\]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\u002Fbooks\u002FNBK540152\u002F>\n5. Ille AM, Lamont H, Mathews MB. The central dogma revisited: insights from protein synthesis, CRISPR, and beyond. Wiley Interdiscip Rev RNA. 2022;13(5):e1718. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1002\u002Fwrna.1718>",[50,53,56,59,62,65,68],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>Who discovered the genetic code?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The genetic code was cracked by Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich Matthaei in 1961, when they showed that the RNA sequence UUU codes for the amino acid phenylalanine. The work was completed by Nirenberg, Har Gobind Khorana, and Robert Holley, who shared the 1968 Nobel Prize. Francis Crick is a separate figure here: he proposed the central dogma, not the code.\u003C\u002Fp>\u003Cp>\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>Who proposed the central dogma?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Francis Crick proposed the central dogma. He first stated it in 1957, set it out in detail in 1958, and restated it in a 1970 Nature paper.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>What are the three steps of the central dogma?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Replication (DNA copies itself), transcription (DNA is copied into mRNA), and translation (the ribosome reads mRNA to build a protein).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>Why are there 64 codons but only 20 amino acids?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because a codon is three nucleotides and there are four nucleotides, giving 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 combinations. Three are stop codons, and the remaining 61 code for the 20 amino acids. Most amino acids are specified by more than one codon, a feature called degeneracy.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>What is the start codon and what are the stop codons?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>AUG is the start codon, and it also codes for methionine. The three stop codons are UAA, UAG, and UGA, and none of them code for an amino acid.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>How does the central dogma connect to antibiotics?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Each step is a drug target. Fluoroquinolones block replication (DNA gyrase), rifampicin blocks transcription (RNA polymerase), and many drugs block translation at the ribosome (aminoglycosides and tetracyclines at the 30S subunit; macrolides, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, and linezolid at the 50S subunit).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>Is the genetic code truly universal?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is nearly universal. Almost all organisms read the same codons the same way, which points to a shared evolutionary origin. A few exceptions exist, most notably in human mitochondria, where a small number of codons are read differently.\u003C\u002Fp>",[72],"genetic-code",[],{"enabled":75,"threads":76,"total":77},true,[],0,[79,86,92,99,105,110,116,121,127,130,137],{"slug":80,"name":81,"description":82,"image":83,"body":84,"postCount":85},"acharya-tankeshwar","Acharya Tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":87,"name":43,"description":88,"image":89,"body":90,"postCount":91},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":93,"name":94,"description":95,"image":96,"body":97,"postCount":98},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":100,"name":101,"description":95,"image":102,"body":103,"postCount":104},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":106,"name":107,"description":95,"image":42,"body":108,"postCount":109},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":111,"name":112,"description":113,"image":42,"body":114,"postCount":115},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":117,"name":118,"description":119,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":120},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":122,"name":123,"description":95,"image":124,"body":125,"postCount":126},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":128,"name":129,"description":119,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":120},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":131,"name":132,"description":133,"image":134,"body":135,"postCount":136},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":138,"name":139,"description":140,"image":141,"body":142,"postCount":120},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[144,151,157,162,167,172,176,180,184,189,193,198,202,207,212,216,220,224,229,234,238,242,246,251,255,259,263,267,272,277,281,285,289,293,297,301,305,309,313,317,321,325,329,333,337,341,345,349,354,358,362,366,370,374,378,382,386,390,394,398,402,406,410,414,418,422,425,429,432,436],{"slug":145,"name":146,"description":147,"image":148,"body":149,"postCount":150},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":152,"name":153,"description":154,"image":42,"body":155,"postCount":156},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":158,"name":159,"description":160,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":163,"name":164,"description":165,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":168,"name":169,"description":170,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":173,"name":174,"description":175,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":177,"name":178,"description":179,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":181,"name":182,"description":183,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":185,"name":186,"description":187,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":190,"name":191,"description":192,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":150},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":194,"name":195,"description":196,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":197},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":199,"name":200,"description":201,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":203,"name":204,"description":205,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":206},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":208,"name":209,"description":210,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":211},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":213,"name":214,"description":215,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":197},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":217,"name":218,"description":42,"image":42,"body":219,"postCount":109},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":221,"name":222,"description":42,"image":42,"body":223,"postCount":206},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":225,"name":226,"description":227,"image":42,"body":228,"postCount":188},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":230,"name":231,"description":232,"image":42,"body":233,"postCount":109},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":235,"name":236,"description":237,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":239,"name":240,"description":241,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":243,"name":244,"description":245,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":247,"name":248,"description":249,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":250},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":252,"name":253,"description":254,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":256,"name":257,"description":258,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":262,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":264,"name":265,"description":266,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":268,"name":269,"description":270,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":271},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":273,"name":274,"description":275,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":278,"name":279,"description":280,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":284,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":286,"name":287,"description":288,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":290,"name":291,"description":292,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":197},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":302,"name":303,"description":304,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":206},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":306,"name":307,"description":308,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":271},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":310,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":314,"name":315,"description":316,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":318,"name":319,"description":320,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":322,"name":323,"description":324,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":115},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":326,"name":327,"description":328,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":330,"name":331,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":334,"name":335,"description":336,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":156},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":342,"name":343,"description":344,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":150},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":346,"name":347,"description":348,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":350,"name":351,"description":352,"image":42,"body":353,"postCount":109},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":359,"name":360,"description":361,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":367,"name":368,"description":369,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":120},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":206},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":375,"name":376,"description":377,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":104},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":379,"name":380,"description":381,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":161},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":383,"name":384,"description":385,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":387,"name":388,"description":389,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":397,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":399,"name":400,"description":401,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":276},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":411,"name":412,"description":413,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":109},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":72,"name":423,"description":424,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":188},"Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":426,"name":427,"description":428,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":430,"name":431,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":120},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":166},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":437,"name":438,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]