[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$f8onqBmKSlflLmhICA4uKapwYvW7dnOxoJrgj44wmyow":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":273,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":336},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":59,"related":61,"comments":269},"cary-blair-transport-medium-composition-preparation-uses"," Cary-Blair Transport Medium: Composition, Principle, Preparation, and Uses","\u003Cp>Cary-Blair is the medium of choice for transporting enteric pathogens including \u003Cem>Vibrio cholerae,\u003C\u002Fem> \u003Cem>Salmonella, Shigella,\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Campylobacter\u003C\u002Fem>. Learn its principle, semisolid composition, survival times for key organisms, and how it compares to Stuart's, Amies, and APW.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2016-09-10","2026-08-12",false,"culture-media","A health worker at a rural health post in the Terai collects a rectal swab from a patient with profuse watery diarrhea during monsoon season. The nearest laboratory with TCBS agar and a CO₂ incubator is four hours away by road. By the time the specimen reaches the laboratory on a plain swab in a dry tube, *Vibrio cholerae*, if present, will almost certainly be dead.\n\nThe solution is Cary-Blair transport medium: a semisolid, alkaline, low-nutrient medium that keeps enteric pathogens viable during transport without allowing them to multiply, overgrow each other, or generate the acid metabolites that would otherwise kill fragile organisms like *Shigella* within hours. In settings where specimens cannot be processed immediately such as most district laboratories in resource-limited settings, correct transport medium selection is as important to the final culture result as any step that follows.\n\nCary-Blair transport medium can be used to transport clinical specimens suspected to contain enteric pathogens, including  *Shigella, Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae*, and *Escherichia coli* O157:H7. Since this transport medium has a high pH (8.4), the viability of *Vibrio* cultures can be maintained for a longer duration. Cary-Blair is the medium of choice for the transport and preservation of *V. cholerae*.\n\n![Cary-Blair semisolid transport medium  - Cary-Blair semisolid transport medium](\u002Fblogs\u002FCary-blair-semisolid-transport-medium.jpg)Figure: Cary-Blair semisolid transport medium\n\n**Other transport media that are similar to Cary-Blair are:**\n\n1. **Amies’ and Stuart’s transport media** are acceptable for *Shigella and E. coli* O157:H7, but they are inferior to Cary-Blair for transport of *V .cholerae.*\n2. [**Alkaline peptone water (APW)**](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Falkaline-peptone-water-apw-principle-preparation-uses\u002F) may be used to transport *V. cholerae*, but this medium is inferior to Cary-Blair and should be used only when the latter medium is not available.\n3. **Buffered glycerol saline (BGS)** is used to transport *Shigella* but unsuitable for the transport of *V*. *cholerae.*\n\n## Principle\n\nTransport media are fundamentally different from culture media in their design objective. Culture media are formulated to support and encourage bacterial growth. Transport media are formulated to do the opposite, to maintain bacterial viability while actively preventing growth, multiplication, and metabolic activity that would alter the specimen's original microbial composition.\n\nCary-Blair medium achieves this through four design features working together:\n\n**1. Minimal nutrients, preventing multiplication:** The medium contains no carbohydrates, no blood, and no growth-promoting supplements. Organisms present in the specimen cannot multiply because the nutritional substrates required for cell division are absent. This ensures the specimen reflects the original microbial burden — a high count of *Salmonella* remains high; a low count of *Shigella* is not diluted by overgrowth of competing coliforms.\n\n**2. Sodium thioglycollate, preventing oxidative killing:** Sodium thioglycollate is a reducing agent that lowers the oxidation-reduction (redox) potential of the medium. This is particularly important for two reasons: (a) anaerobic and microaerophilic organisms such as *Campylobacter* are killed by prolonged oxygen exposure — thioglycollate creates a low-oxygen microenvironment that extends their viability; (b) the reducing conditions prevent the accumulation of reactive oxygen species that damage bacterial cell membranes during transport.\n\n**3. Alkaline pH (8.4), protecting Vibrio and suppressing acid formation:** At neutral or acidic pH, metabolically active bacteria produce organic acids that rapidly lower the local pH, killing acid-sensitive organisms (particularly *Shigella*) and reducing overall recovery. The alkaline pH of 8.4 neutralizes these acids as they form, maintaining a protective environment. The alkaline pH is also specifically important for *V. cholerae*, which thrives at pH 8.0–9.6 and survives transport far better in alkaline conditions than in neutral media.\n\n**4. Semisolid consistency (0.5% agar), immobilizing the specimen:** The low agar concentration creates a semisolid matrix that keeps swabs and specimen material distributed throughout the medium rather than settling to the bottom. This ensures even contact between organisms and the protective medium components, and prevents the swab from drying out, desiccation being the most common cause of organism death during transport.\n\n> **Key teaching point:** Transport media preserve; they do not enrich. An organism present in very low numbers in a stool specimen will still be present in very low numbers after Cary-Blair transport. If enrichment is needed (e.g., carrier screening, convalescent specimens), a separate enrichment step — [selenite broth](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fselenite-broth-composition-uses\u002F) for *Salmonella*, APW for *Vibrio*, must be performed after the specimen arrives at the laboratory.\n\n## Composition of Cary-Blair Transport Medium\n\n| Ingredient | Amount | Function |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Sodium thioglycollate | 1.5 g\u002FL | Reducing agent, lowers redox potential; prevents oxidative killing; extends survival of microaerophilic and anaerobic organisms |\n| Disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na₂HPO₄) | 1.1 g\u002FL | Buffer, maintains alkaline pH; neutralizes acid metabolites produced during transport |\n| Sodium chloride | 5.0 g\u002FL | Osmotic balance, maintains ionic environment compatible with bacterial cell membranes |\n| Calcium chloride | 0.09 g\u002FL | Stabilizes the agar gel matrix; prevents syneresis (liquid separation from agar) during storage |\n| Agar | 5.0 g\u002FL | Solidifying agent at low concentration — produces semisolid consistency that immobilizes specimen without preventing swab insertion |\n\n**Final pH:** 8.4 ± 0.2 at 25°C\n\n> **Why no carbohydrates?** The deliberate absence of any fermentable carbohydrate is essential. If glucose or lactose were present, fermenting organisms would produce acid during transport, dropping the pH and killing acid-sensitive pathogens such as *Shigella*. The \"minimal nutrient\" formulation is not a limitation of Cary-Blair: it is its defining design feature.\n\n## Preparation of Cary-Blair transport medium\n\nThis medium is best prepared from ready-to-use dehydrated powder available from most suppliers of culture media. The medium is usually used at a concentration of **1.3 g in every 100 mL of distilled water** (concentration may vary depending on the manufacturer).\n\n1. Prepare as instructed by the manufacturer. Suspend 12.6 grams in 991 ml of distilled water. Heat to boiling to dissolve the medium completely. Cool to 50°C and aseptically add 9 ml of 1% aqueous calcium chloride solution. *(Note: Several commercially available dehydrated formulations of Cary-Blair are available. Some require the addition of calcium chloride and some do not.* ) **Adjust pH to 8.4 if necessary.**\n2. Dispense the medium in 7ml amounts in screw-cap bottles of 9 ml capacity (large size Bijou bottles). (Sufficient volume of Cary-Blair medium is dispensed into containers so that swabs will be covered by at least 4 cm of medium.)\n3. Sterilize by steaming with caps loosened (**do not autoclave**) at 100°C for 15 minutes.\n4. When cool, tighten the bottle caps. Label the bottles.\n5. Date the medium and give it a batch number. Record the expiry date (6 months from preparation) on each bottle.\n6. Store in a cool dark place with the bottle tops screwed tightly.\n\n**Quality Control of the prepared medium**\n\n1. **pH of medium:** This should be within the range **pH 8.3 -8.5** at room temperatures.\n2. **Shelf life:** Cary-Blair transport medium is quite stable if stored in tightly-sealed containers in a cool dark place so that the medium does not dry out. Cary-Blair may be used for **up to 1 year** as long as there is no loss of volume, contamination, alteration of pH, or color change.\n\n## Uses\n\n1. To transport enteric pathogens, including *Shigella, Salmonella, Vibrio cholerae,* and *Escherichia coli* O157:H7. Prompt plating, refrigeration, or freezing of specimens in Cary-Blair medium is particularly important for the isolation of *Shigella* which is comparatively more fragile than other enteric organisms.\n2. For the detection of [*Campylobacter* species](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fcampylobacter-jejuni-disease-properties-and-laboratory-diagnosis\u002F) from feces (or rectal swab), the specimen must reach the laboratory within 2 hours. If a delay of more than 2 hours is anticipated, the stool should be placed either in Cary-Blair transport medium or in campy thioglycollate medium.\n\n## Choosing the Right Transport Medium for Enteric Specimens\n\nDifferent transport media have different organism-specific performance characteristics. No single medium is optimal for all enteric pathogens.\n\n| Transport Medium | Physical state | pH | *V. cholerae* | *Shigella* | *Salmonella* | *Campylobacter* | *E. coli* O157 | Special notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Cary-Blair** | Semisolid | 8.4 | **Best** | Good | Good | Good (up to 6 hrs) | Good | Medium of choice for most enteric pathogens; best overall |\n| Stuart's medium | Semisolid | 7.3 | Inferior | Good | Good | Poor | Good | General-purpose; not suitable for *Vibrio* |\n| Amies medium | Semisolid | 7.3 | Inferior | Good | Good | Poor | Good | Charcoal version better for fastidious organisms |\n| Alkaline Peptone Water (APW) | Liquid | 8.6–9.0 | Good (transport only if <8 hrs) | **Not suitable** | **Not suitable** | Not suitable | **Not suitable** | *Vibrio*-only medium; secondary choice when Cary-Blair unavailable |\n| Buffered Glycerol Saline (BGS) | Liquid | 7.2 | **Not suitable** | Good | Good | Not suitable | Variable | *Shigella* and *Salmonella* only; glycerol is toxic to *Vibrio* |\n\n**Decision rule:**\n\n- Suspected enteric outbreak (mixed pathogens possible): **Cary-Blair**\n- Suspected cholera, Cary-Blair unavailable: **APW**, subculture within 6–8 hours\n- Suspected *Shigella* dysentery only, Cary-Blair unavailable: **BGS** or **Amies**\n- Any specimen requiring >48 hours transport: **Cary-Blair** with refrigeration, the only transport medium validated for extended periods\n\n## Inoculation\n\n1. Immerse a swab of the fecal specimen in a container of sterile Cary-Blair transport medium, breaking off the swab stick to allow the bottle top to be replaced tightly.\n2. Protect the swab from direct light and excessive heat.\n\n**Note:** *Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio*, and *Y. enterocolitica* survive well in Cary-Blair medium for at least 48 hours (several days for *Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio* species) and *Campylobacter* species for up to 6 hours. It is also a good transport medium for *Y. pestis.*\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Transport media preserve; they do not enrich  and three design choices explain everything:**\n\n1. **No carbohydrates** → no acid production → pH stays stable → acid-sensitive organisms (*Shigella*) survive\n2. **Sodium thioglycollate** → low oxygen environment → microaerophilic organisms (*Campylobacter*) survive\n3. **pH 8.4** → alkaline environment → *Vibrio cholerae* survives\n\nEach design feature maps directly to one pathogen group it was designed to protect.\n\n**The organism survival time table as a clinical decision tool:**\n\n| Organism | Survival in Cary-Blair | Practical implication |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| *Salmonella*, *Shigella*, *Vibrio* | 48 hours to several days | Next-day transport is acceptable |\n| *Campylobacter* | Up to 6 hours | Must reach lab same day; refrigerate during transport |\n| *Y. enterocolitica*, *Y. pestis* | 48+ hours | Cary-Blair suitable for Yersinia |\n\n**The Vibrio\u002Fcholera diagnostic workflow and where Cary-Blair fits:**\n\n> Specimen collection → **Cary-Blair** (transport) → Lab receipt → **APW** (6–8 hrs enrichment) → **TCBS agar** (18–24 hrs incubation) → Yellow colonies → *V. cholerae* suspect\n\nCary-Blair starts the chain. APW amplifies. TCBS reveals. Each step exists because of the biological fragility of *V. cholerae* at different stages of the diagnostic process.\n\n**Why NOT to use APW as a transport medium unless Cary-Blair is unavailable:** APW is an enrichment broth: it actively multiplies *Vibrio* while suppressing other enteric pathogens. If used for transport, it will destroy the original specimen's microbial composition (killing *Salmonella* and *Shigella* while multiplying *Vibrio*). Cary-Blair preserves all enteric pathogens neutrally; APW is selective enrichment only.\n\n**References and further readings**\n\n1. Cheesbrough, M. (2006). *District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 2* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.\n2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2011). *Laboratory Methods for the Diagnosis of Epidemic Dysentery and Cholera*. Atlanta: CDC.\n3. Tille, P. M. (2017). *Bailey and Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology* (14th ed.). Elsevier.\n4. World Health Organization. (2004). *Laboratory Methods for the Diagnosis of Meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae* (2nd ed.). Geneva: WHO.",[50,53,56],{"question":51,"answer":52},"Why does Cary-Blair medium use sodium thioglycollate when other transport media do not?","\u003Cp>Sodium thioglycollate is a reducing agent that lowers the oxidation-reduction (redox) potential of Cary-Blair medium, creating a microaerobic to anaerobic microenvironment within the semisolid matrix. This is specifically important for two groups of pathogens: (1) \u003Cem>Campylobacter \u003C\u002Fem>species, which are microaerophilic and are killed by prolonged exposure to atmospheric oxygen concentrations — the reduced environment extends their viability during transport; and (2) any facultative anaerobes present in the specimen whose viability is compromised by reactive oxygen species accumulation at room temperature. Stuart's and Amies media do not contain thioglycollate, which is why they show inferior \u003Cem>Campylobacter\u003C\u002Fem> recovery compared to Cary-Blair for specimens with anticipated transport delays beyond 2 hours.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"Why is Cary-Blair medium alkaline (pH 8.4), and how does this protect the specimen?","\u003Cp>The alkaline pH of 8.4 in Cary-Blair medium serves two protective functions. First, it creates conditions that specifically favor \u003Cem>Vibrio cholerae\u003C\u002Fem> survival — \u003Cem>V. cholerae\u003C\u002Fem> grows optimally at pH 8.0–9.6 and survives transport far better in alkaline than neutral conditions. This is why Cary-Blair is the medium of choice for cholera specimen transport and is superior to Stuart's and Amies media (both pH 7.3) for this specific organism. Second, the alkaline pH acts as a buffer against the metabolic acid production that would otherwise occur as organisms undergo limited metabolic activity during transport. Even minimal metabolism of substrates in the specimen produces organic acids; at pH 7.3, these acids accumulate and can drop the local pH to levels lethal to acid-sensitive organisms such as \u003Cem>Shigella.\u003C\u002Fem> The alkaline starting pH provides a substantial buffer capacity that maintains a safe pH range throughout the transport period.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"How long do different enteric pathogens survive in Cary-Blair medium, and what are the practical implications?","\u003Cp>Survival times in Cary-Blair medium vary significantly by organism, which has direct implications for transport planning: \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Shigella\u003C\u002Fem> survive for at least 48 hours and typically several days;\u003Cem> Vibrio cholerae\u003C\u002Fem> survives for at least 48 hours, with Cary-Blair's alkaline pH providing superior conditions compared to other transport media; \u003Cem>Yersinia enterocolitica\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Y. pestis\u003C\u002Fem> survive for 48+ hours; \u003Cem>Campylobacter\u003C\u002Fem> species survive for only up to 6 hours, making same-day transport essential — specimens for \u003Cem>Campylobacter \u003C\u002Fem>culture collected in Cary-Blair must reach the laboratory within 6 hours, or be refrigerated to slow all bacterial activity. The practical implication for field collection: Cary-Blair is suitable for overnight transport for \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Shigella\u003C\u002Fem>, but not for \u003Cem>Campylobacter\u003C\u002Fem>. If \u003Cem>Campylobacter\u003C\u002Fem> is specifically suspected and same-day transport is not possible, campy thioglycollate medium is the alternative.\u003C\u002Fp>",[60],"specimen-collection-transport",[62,78,88,122,144,179,202,240],{"slug":63,"title":64,"description":65,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":66,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":67,"tags":77},"alkaline-peptone-water-apw-principle-preparation-uses","Alkaline Peptone Water (APW): Composition, Principle, Preparation, and Uses in Vibrio Enrichment","Alkaline Peptone Water (APW) is the standard enrichment broth for Vibrio cholerae isolation. Learn its pH selectivity principle, why vibrios form a pellicle at the surface, how to subculture onto TCBS agar, and when APW is used versus Cary-Blair transport medium.","2026-07-05",[68,71,74],{"question":69,"answer":70},"Why does Vibrio cholerae form a pellicle at the surface of APW, and why is only the surface subcultured onto TCBS?","V. cholerae is both motile (single polar flagellum) and aerophilic — it preferentially grows in oxygenated environments. When inoculated into APW and incubated at 37°C, V. cholerae actively swims toward the air-liquid interface where oxygen concentration is highest, accumulating there and forming a thin film called a pellicle after 4–6 hours. Competing organisms that survive the alkaline pH but lack directed motility toward the surface tend to remain distributed throughout the broth or settle to the bottom. Inoculating TCBS agar from the surface pellicle only — by touching the inoculating loop to the surface without mixing or shaking the broth — transfers V. cholerae-enriched material while leaving the sediment of competing organisms behind. Mixing the broth before subculture defeats the purpose of this spatial separation and reduces the sensitivity of the enrichment step.",{"question":72,"answer":73},"Why is APW suitable for Vibrio enrichment but unsuitable for Salmonella, Shigella, or Campylobacter?","APW's selectivity is based entirely on its alkaline pH (8.6–9.0). This pH range is optimal for V. cholerae and selectively suppresses most intestinal commensals. However, it also inhibits the growth of other clinically important enteric pathogens: Salmonella and Shigella grow optimally at pH 7.0–7.4 and are significantly inhibited at pH 8.6–9.0; Campylobacter is microaerophilic and also pH-sensitive, with optimal growth at pH 6.5–7.5. If a specimen for broad enteric workup (including Salmonella, Shigella, or Campylobacter) is placed into APW for transport, these organisms will be progressively killed by the alkaline pH while V. cholerae multiplies. The specimen will arrive at the laboratory as effectively Vibrio-only material, making it impossible to detect co-infecting pathogens or to perform a comprehensive enteric culture. Cary-Blair transport medium, which is pH-neutral to mildly alkaline and contains no selective enrichment mechanism, preserves all enteric pathogens simultaneously.",{"question":75,"answer":76},"When is APW enrichment unnecessary, and why?","APW enrichment is unnecessary when the specimen contains very high numbers of V. cholerae — specifically in acute cholera during the first few days of illness. A patient with acute cholera is passing liquid 'rice-water' stool containing 10⁷ to 10⁹ V. cholerae per milliliter. At these concentrations, V. cholerae vastly outnumbers competing flora even before enrichment, and direct plating onto TCBS agar will produce abundant yellow colonies without any pre-enrichment step. Proceeding with APW enrichment in this situation delays the result by 6–8 hours unnecessarily. APW enrichment is specifically valuable for the four situations where organism counts are low: convalescent patients (illness >5 days, declining shedding), asymptomatic carriers, environmental water and food samples, and rectal swab specimens (which transfer fewer organisms than fresh liquid stool).",[60],{"slug":79,"title":80,"description":81,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":82,"createdDate":83,"lastUpdatedDate":84,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":85,"tags":86},"selenite-broth-composition-uses","Selenite Broth: Composition, Principle, Preparation, and Uses in Salmonella Enrichment","\u003Cp>Selenite broth is the most widely used enrichment medium for isolating \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> from stool, urine, and food. Learn its principle, why selenite inhibits coliforms, preparation without autoclaving, and how to use it before XLD or DCA subculture.\u003C\u002Fp>","Nisha Rijal","2018-11-27","2026-08-14",[],[87],"bacterial-culture-media",{"slug":89,"title":90,"description":91,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":92,"lastUpdatedDate":93,"draft":46,"category":94,"image":42,"faq":95,"tags":120},"campylobacter-jejuni-disease-properties-and-laboratory-diagnosis","Campylobacter jejuni: Gastroenteritis, Guillain-Barré Syndrome, and Laboratory Diagnosis","\u003Cp>How \u003Cem>Campylobacter jejuni \u003C\u002Fem>causes the world's most common bacterial gastroenteritis, its link to Guillain-Barré syndrome, and how the laboratory identifies it (curved rods, 42°C, microaerophilic, oxidase positive).\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-05-18","2026-08-13","bacteriology",[96,99,102,105,108,111,114,117],{"question":97,"answer":98},"\u003Cp>What is the most common bacterial cause of gastroenteritis worldwide?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Campylobacter jejuni\u003C\u002Fem>. It usually causes bloody, foul-smelling, self-limited diarrhea, most often from undercooked poultry.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":100,"answer":101},"\u003Cp>At what temperature does Campylobacter jejuni grow?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Best at 42°C, which is higher than body temperature. Laboratories use this to select for it, incubating stool cultures at 42°C in a low-oxygen atmosphere. The related species \u003Cem>C. fetus\u003C\u002Fem> grows at 25°C instead.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":103,"answer":104},"\u003Cp>Why does Campylobacter need a special atmosphere to grow?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because it is microaerophilic: it grows best in about 5% oxygen with added carbon dioxide, not in ordinary room air. It will not grow on a standard aerobic plate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":106,"answer":107},"\u003Cp>How does Campylobacter cause Guillain-Barré syndrome?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Through molecular mimicry. The sugar coating on \u003Cem>Campylobacter\u003C\u002Fem> resembles molecules on human peripheral nerves. Antibodies made against the bacterium cross-react with the nerves and attack them, causing the ascending weakness of Guillain-Barré syndrome, usually a week or two after the diarrhea.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":109,"answer":110},"\u003Cp>Is Campylobacter oxidase positive or negative?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Oxidase-positive. This helps separate it from the Enterobacteriaceae, which are oxidase-negative. It is also catalase-positive.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":112,"answer":113},"\u003Cp>How do you tell Campylobacter from Vibrio?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both are curved, oxidase-positive Gram-negative rods. \u003Cem>Campylobacter\u003C\u002Fem> is microaerophilic and grows at 42°C; \u003Cem>Vibrio\u003C\u002Fem> is a facultative anaerobe that grows on ordinary media and on TCBS agar.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":115,"answer":116},"\u003Cp>How is Campylobacter infection treated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Most cases are self-limited and need only rehydration. When antibiotics are needed, a macrolide such as azithromycin is preferred. Fluoroquinolones like ciprofloxacin are now often unreliable because resistance is common.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":118,"answer":119},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter fetus?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>C. jejuni\u003C\u002Fem> causes gut infection, grows at 42°C, and is sensitive to nalidixic acid. \u003Cem>C. fetus\u003C\u002Fem> causes bloodstream infection in the elderly and debilitated, grows at 25°C (not 42°C), and is resistant to nalidixic acid.\u003C\u002Fp>",[121],"gram-negative-rods",{"slug":123,"title":124,"description":125,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":82,"createdDate":126,"lastUpdatedDate":66,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":127,"tags":143},"amies-transport-medium","Amies Transport Medium: Composition, Uses, and Why It Replaced Stuart's Medium","Why a fragile gonococcus swab can die before it ever reaches the lab, the design fix that made Amies better than Stuart's medium, and when to choose the charcoal-free version instead.","2019-12-03",[128,131,134,137,140],{"question":129,"answer":130},"What is Amies transport medium used for?","Preserving swab specimens, such as throat, wound, vaginal, and genital swabs, in a stable, non-multiplying state during transport to the microbiology laboratory.",{"question":132,"answer":133},"Why did Amies medium replace Stuart's medium?","Stuart's medium used glycerophosphate as a buffer, but some organisms could use it as a carbon source and keep multiplying during transport. Amies replaced it with an inorganic phosphate buffer to remove that problem.",{"question":135,"answer":136},"When should Amies without charcoal be used instead of the charcoal version?","Specifically for Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma recovery, since charcoal, helpful for most other fastidious organisms, actually inhibits recovery of these two.",{"question":138,"answer":139},"Can Amies transport medium be frozen for longer storage?","No. Freezing causes ice crystals to rupture bacterial cells, killing the organism. Refrigeration, not freezing, is the correct way to slow deterioration during transport.",{"question":141,"answer":142},"How long can a specimen sit in Amies medium before processing?","Ideally within 6 hours, and no later than 24 hours, maintaining a cold chain throughout.",[60],{"slug":145,"title":146,"description":147,"seoTitle":148,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":149,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":150,"tags":178},"viral-transport-media-vtm","Viral Transport Media (VTM): Composition, Uses, Storage, and VTM vs UTM","What is in viral transport medium and why, how it differs from universal transport medium and bacterial media like Amies, correct storage temperatures, and the freezing mistake that destroys specimens.","Viral Transport Media (VTM): Composition, Uses, and Correct Storage","2020-03-23",[151,154,157,160,163,166,169,172,175],{"question":152,"answer":153},"What does viral transport medium contain?","A buffered balanced salt solution to hold pH and osmolality, a protein stabilizer such as serum, albumin, or gelatin to protect virions and stop them adsorbing to the tube wall, and antimicrobials (typically an antibiotic plus an antifungal) to suppress contaminating bacteria and fungi. Some formulations include phenol red as a pH indicator.",{"question":155,"answer":156},"Can I use one swab in VTM for both viral and bacterial testing?","No. VTM contains antibiotics and an antifungal specifically to prevent bacterial and fungal overgrowth, so bacteria in that specimen will be suppressed. If both viral and bacterial investigations are needed from the same site, collect two separate specimens.",{"question":158,"answer":159},"At what temperature should VTM specimens be stored?","Hold at 2 to 8°C and process within 48 to 72 hours. If processing will be delayed beyond that, freeze at -70°C or below and transport on dry ice. Room temperature is tolerated briefly during transit but is not equivalent to refrigeration.",{"question":161,"answer":162},"Why should viral specimens never be frozen at -20°C?","A -20°C freezer sits in the temperature range where ice crystals form and grow, and frost-free models repeatedly partially thaw and refreeze their contents. This shears viral envelopes and fragments nucleic acid. A specimen held at -20°C ends up in worse condition than one kept in the refrigerator. If -70°C is unavailable, refrigerate and expedite transport instead.",{"question":164,"answer":165},"What is the difference between VTM and UTM?","Universal transport medium is formulated to support viruses together with Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, and Ureaplasma, and to serve both culture and molecular testing. In practice the terms are used almost interchangeably and most commercial VTM sold today is a universal formulation. The distinction that matters at the bench is whether the medium is a viral one or a bacterial one.",{"question":167,"answer":168},"Can I use liquid Amies (eSwab) for a viral specimen?","No. Liquid Amies is a bacterial maintenance medium and lacks the protein stabilizer and antimicrobials a viral specimen requires. The two systems look nearly identical, both a flocked swab in liquid in a screw-cap tube, so check the medium named on the label rather than the appearance of the device.",{"question":170,"answer":171},"Why is VTM suitable for Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, and Ureaplasma if they are bacteria?","Because they are osmotically fragile in the same way viruses are. Chlamydia is an obligate intracellular organism, and Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma have no cell wall at all. All three die quickly in the salt-based media used for ordinary bacteria and need the protein stabilization and buffering that VTM provides.",{"question":173,"answer":174},"What is inactivating VTM and when should it be used?","Inactivating VTM contains a lysis agent that destroys the virus on contact while preserving its nucleic acid for PCR, which reduces the biohazard for anyone handling the specimen. The trade-off is absolute: culture, isolation, and any test requiring live virus become impossible. Use it when the request is molecular only, and use non-inactivating medium when culture may be needed.",{"question":176,"answer":177},"Should CSF or urine be placed in VTM?","No. Liquid specimens including cerebrospinal fluid, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, urine, and ocular fluids are submitted neat in a sterile container. VTM exists to keep a swab from drying out and to stabilize what is on it. Adding it to a liquid specimen only dilutes the target, which costs sensitivity in specimens where viral load is often already low.",[60],{"slug":180,"title":181,"description":182,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":183,"lastUpdatedDate":184,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":185,"tags":201},"trans-isolate-t-medium-introduction-uses","Trans-Isolate (T-I) Medium: Inoculation, Transport, and the Rules","Why three of the most feared meningitis pathogens die within hours outside the CSF, and the one venting decision that's easy to reverse by mistake when a sample has to travel.","2013-11-08","2026-08-03",[186,189,192,195,198],{"question":187,"answer":188},"What is Trans-Isolate (T-I) medium used for?","Inoculating and transporting CSF samples from patients with suspected bacterial meningitis when the specimen can't reach a laboratory within an hour of collection.",{"question":190,"answer":191},"What organisms does T-I medium support?","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Haemophilus influenzae\u003C\u002Fem>, the three most common causes of bacterial meningitis.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":193,"answer":194},"When should a T-I bottle be vented versus left sealed?","If transport will happen the same day, leave it sealed until arrival. If transport will be delayed beyond 24 hours, vent it with a cotton-plugged needle.",{"question":196,"answer":197},"Why should povidone-iodine never be used to disinfect the T-I bottle's stopper?","A needle passing through iodine-treated rubber can carry trace iodine into the medium, inhibiting growth of the organisms the medium is meant to preserve. Only 70% alcohol should be used.",{"question":199,"answer":200},"What happens if no growth is seen after the first subculture?","The T-I medium should be re-subcultured on day 4 and again on day 7 before growth is ruled out.",[60],{"slug":203,"title":204,"description":205,"seoTitle":206,"seoDescription":42,"author":207,"createdDate":208,"lastUpdatedDate":209,"draft":46,"category":210,"image":42,"faq":211,"tags":239},"eswab-types-and-uses","Liquid-Based Swab Transport Systems (eSwab): Types, Uses, and Limitations","How liquid Amies transport systems like eSwab let one collection serve culture, Gram stain, and PCR, which formats exist, and the specimens they are not suitable for.","Liquid-Based Swab Transport Systems: How eSwab Works and When to Use It","Sushmita Baniya","2022-11-03","2026-07-23","lab-equipment",[212,215,218,221,224,227,230,233,236],{"question":213,"answer":214},"What is eSwab and what does the E stand for?","eSwab is a liquid-based swab transport system consisting of a nylon flocked swab and 1 mL of liquid Amies medium in a sterile screw-cap tube. The E stands for elute, referring to the sample releasing off the swab into the liquid rather than remaining trapped in the fibers.",{"question":216,"answer":217},"Can I use eSwab for viral specimens such as influenza or SARS-CoV-2?","No. Liquid Amies is a bacterial maintenance medium and lacks the protein stabilizers and antimicrobials that viral transport medium provides. Viral specimens require viral transport medium or universal transport medium. The two systems look very similar, so check the medium stated on the label rather than relying on the appearance of the swab.",{"question":219,"answer":220},"How long do organisms survive in a liquid Amies system?","Up to 48 hours at either room temperature (20 to 25°C) or refrigerator temperature (4 to 8°C), validated against CLSI standard M40-A2. Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the exception and should be processed within 24 hours, since it is the most fragile of the commonly transported pathogens.",{"question":222,"answer":223},"How many tests can be run from one eSwab collection?","Because the specimen becomes a liquid suspension, it can be divided into aliquots, typically up to ten from the 1 mL supplied. One collection can therefore serve Gram stain, culture, rapid antigen testing, and molecular assays, whereas a dry swab is usually spent on the first test performed.",{"question":225,"answer":226},"Why is the device sterilized by gamma irradiation?","Sterilization during manufacture ensures the tube and swab arrive sterile and ready to use, and it destroys any residual nucleic acid in the device. That matters for molecular testing, because contaminating DNA in a collection device could produce a false positive. It happens before the swab ever meets a patient and has no effect on the specimen collected later.",{"question":228,"answer":229},"What is the difference between liquid Amies and gel Amies?","Gel Amies holds the specimen within the swab fibers, so it must be eluted at the bench and only part is recovered. Liquid Amies elutes the sample at the moment of collection, recovering far more of it and allowing multiple aliquots. Gel remains cheaper and adequate for a routine single-request bacterial swab; liquid earns its cost for multi-test requests, fastidious organisms, and molecular or automated workflows.",{"question":231,"answer":232},"Is a liquid-based swab as good as a tissue sample?","No. For anaerobic culture, deep wounds, and fungal infection, tissue or aspirated fluid remains the preferred specimen. Liquid-based systems substantially improve what a swab can deliver, but they do not make a swab equivalent to tissue.",{"question":234,"answer":235},"What is the breakpoint on the swab shaft?","A scored line that allows the shaft to be snapped cleanly once the swab is inside the tube, so the cap seals properly and the collector's fingers never enter the tube. Bend the shaft against the tube rim at the mark, holding the tube away from your face.",{"question":237,"answer":238},"Which eSwab format should I use for a pediatric or nasopharyngeal sample?","The single minitip format, which has a smaller flocked tip suited to narrow or small collection sites, pediatric patients, and urethral sampling. The single regular format suits routine adult collection from throat, wound, ear, eye, and genital sites.",[60],{"slug":241,"title":242,"description":243,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":244,"lastUpdatedDate":245,"draft":46,"category":94,"image":42,"faq":246,"tags":268},"rejection-criteria-for-microbiological-specimens","Specimen Collection and Transport in Microbiology: Principles, Guidelines, and Rejection Criteria","\u003Cp>The principles of collecting and transporting microbiology specimens, guidelines by specimen type, the transport rules that protect the sample, and the criteria a laboratory uses to reject a specimen, with links to detailed collection guides for each specimen.\u003C\u002Fp>","2021-05-04","2026-08-20",[247,250,253,256,259,262,265],{"question":248,"answer":249},"\u003Cp>Why is specimen collection considered the most important step in microbiology?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because it is the pre-analytical phase, the largest single source of laboratory error. A poorly collected specimen either misses the causative organism or grows a contaminant, so even a perfect test produces a wrong result. The quality of the specimen sets the ceiling on the quality of the result.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":251,"answer":252},"\u003Cp>Which microbiology specimens should never be refrigerated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Blood cultures, cerebrospinal fluid, sterile body fluids, genital specimens for \u003Cem>Neisseria gonorrhoeae\u003C\u002Fem>, and most fungal specimens are kept at room temperature, because cold kills these fastidious organisms. Urine and routine swabs, by contrast, are refrigerated if processing is delayed.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":254,"answer":255},"\u003Cp>What are the main reasons a laboratory rejects a specimen?\u003Cbr>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Clerical errors (unlabeled or mislabeled specimens, missing request forms), inappropriate samples or containers (leaking containers, formalin-fixed specimens, Foley catheter tips), delay or wrong transport temperature, specimens inappropriate for the test (dry swabs, saliva instead of sputum, 24-hour pooled samples), inadequate quantity, and duplicate specimens on the same day.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":257,"answer":258},"\u003Cp>What is an irretrievable specimen?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A specimen that cannot practically be recollected, such as cerebrospinal fluid, surgical fluids and tissue, post-mortem specimens, and blood cultures. Rather than reject one of these for a minor flaw, the laboratory processes it and adds a note to the report describing the problem, so the clinician can interpret the result with appropriate caution.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":260,"answer":261},"\u003Cp>Why can't a mislabeled specimen be corrected over the phone?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because confirming identity by telephone reintroduces the identification error the rule exists to prevent. A mislabeled specimen is either recollected, or the label is corrected in person in the laboratory, so that patient identity is verified directly.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":263,"answer":264},"\u003Cp>Why is a saliva-contaminated sputum rejected?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A sputum with many squamous epithelial cells and few neutrophils on the screening Gram stain is mostly saliva, carrying oral flora rather than the lower-respiratory pathogen. Culturing it grows contaminants, so a proper deep-cough specimen is requested instead.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":266,"answer":267},"\u003Cp>How soon must specimens reach the laboratory?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>As a general rule within 2 hours, after which an unpreserved specimen may be rejected. When a delay is unavoidable, the correct transport medium or storage condition is used, room temperature for the never-refrigerate group, refrigeration for urine and routine swabs.\u003C\u002Fp>",[60],{"enabled":270,"threads":271,"total":272},true,[],0,[274,280,287,293,299,304,310,315,321,324,330],{"slug":275,"name":43,"description":276,"image":277,"body":278,"postCount":279},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",479,{"slug":281,"name":282,"description":283,"image":284,"body":285,"postCount":286},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":288,"name":207,"description":289,"image":290,"body":291,"postCount":292},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":289,"image":296,"body":297,"postCount":298},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":300,"name":301,"description":289,"image":42,"body":302,"postCount":303},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":305,"name":306,"description":307,"image":42,"body":308,"postCount":309},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":311,"name":312,"description":313,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":289,"image":318,"body":319,"postCount":320},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":322,"name":323,"description":313,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":325,"name":82,"description":326,"image":327,"body":328,"postCount":329},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":331,"name":332,"description":333,"image":334,"body":335,"postCount":314},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[337,344,350,355,359,364,368,372,376,381,385,390,394,399,403,407,411,415,420,425,429,433,437,442,446,450,454,458,463,468,472,476,480,484,488,492,496,500,504,508,512,516,520,524,528,532,536,540,545,549,553,557,561,565,569,573,577,581,585,589,593,597,601,605,609,613,617,621,624,628,631,634,637,640,643,646,649,652,655],{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":341,"body":342,"postCount":343},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":345,"name":346,"description":347,"image":42,"body":348,"postCount":349},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":121,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":362,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":365,"name":366,"description":367,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":369,"name":370,"description":371,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":373,"name":374,"description":375,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":382,"name":383,"description":384,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":320},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":397,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":60,"name":400,"description":401,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":402},"Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":42,"image":42,"body":410,"postCount":303},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":42,"image":42,"body":414,"postCount":398},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":419,"postCount":380},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":423,"image":42,"body":424,"postCount":303},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":426,"name":427,"description":428,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":430,"name":431,"description":432,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":434,"name":435,"description":436,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":438,"name":439,"description":440,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":441},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":443,"name":444,"description":445,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":462},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":469,"name":470,"description":471,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":473,"name":474,"description":475,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":87,"name":481,"description":482,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":483},"Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":491,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":493,"name":494,"description":495,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":497,"name":498,"description":499,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":462},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":503,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":505,"name":506,"description":507,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":509,"name":510,"description":511,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":515,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":517,"name":518,"description":519,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":521,"name":522,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":523},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":525,"name":526,"description":527,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":529,"name":530,"description":531,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":533,"name":534,"description":535,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":343},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":537,"name":538,"description":539,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":541,"name":542,"description":543,"image":42,"body":544,"postCount":303},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":546,"name":547,"description":548,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":550,"name":551,"description":552,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":554,"name":555,"description":556,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":558,"name":559,"description":560,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":562,"name":563,"description":564,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":398},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":566,"name":567,"description":568,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":389},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":570,"name":571,"description":572,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":354},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":574,"name":575,"description":576,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":578,"name":579,"description":580,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":582,"name":583,"description":584,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":586,"name":587,"description":588,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":523},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":590,"name":591,"description":592,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":594,"name":595,"description":596,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":598,"name":599,"description":600,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":602,"name":603,"description":604,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":606,"name":607,"description":608,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":610,"name":611,"description":612,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":614,"name":615,"description":616,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":380},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":618,"name":619,"description":620,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":622,"name":623,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":314},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":625,"name":626,"description":627,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":629,"name":630,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":523},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":632,"name":633,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":635,"name":636,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":638,"name":639,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":641,"name":642,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":644,"name":645,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":523},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":647,"name":648,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":650,"name":651,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":523},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":653,"name":654,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":467},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":656,"name":657,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":462},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing"]