[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fz2BdzETSCq1OK2bB-HM9Zjq1t_qppORu6nm8AFHmtv0":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":134,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":198},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":68,"related":70,"comments":130},"candida-auris","Candida auris: Transmission, Risk, Diagnosis, Treatment","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Candida auris\u003C\u002Fem> is an emerging, often multidrug-resistant yeast that spreads in hospitals and is easily misidentified. Learn how it spreads, who is at risk, how it differs from \u003Cem>Candida albicans, \u003C\u002Fem>and how it is diagnosed and treated.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2021-06-02","2026-08-17",false,"mycology","A patient who has spent weeks in intensive care, with a central line and several courses of antibiotics behind them, develops a bloodstream infection. The yeast that grows is resistant to the usual antifungal, and the same organism is soon found on the skin of two other patients on the ward. This is *Candida auris*, a yeast that colonizes skin, survives on surfaces, and moves between patients in a way ordinary *Candida* does not. Recognizing it quickly is as much an infection-control emergency as a treatment decision.\n\n*Candida auris* (*C. auris*) causes a serious and sometimes fatal fungal infection that is emerging worldwide. First identified in 2009 in Japan, this drug-resistant yeast has now been reported in more than 40 countries across six continents. It is a particular threat to vulnerable patients, especially those who are hospitalized or critically ill. The World Health Organization lists *C. auris* as a critical-priority fungal pathogen, its highest category of concern.\n\n![](\u002Fblogs\u002FCandida-auris-highlights.png)The reported numbers may understate the true spread, because identifying *C. auris* requires specialized laboratory methods that many labs do not have. Whole-genome sequencing shows that *C. auris* emerged as several distinct genetic groups (clades) in different regions of the world at roughly the same time, which is unusual and still not fully explained.\n\n## Why Candida auris matters\n\nThree features make *C. auris* a serious public-health concern, and together they explain why it is treated as an infection-control emergency.\n\n1. **It is often drug-resistant**. Most isolates are resistant to the azoles (such as fluconazole), a substantial share are resistant to amphotericin B, and a smaller but rising number are resistant to the echinocandins, the first-line drugs. Some isolates are resistant to all three classes (pan-resistant), which leaves very few treatment options.\n2. **It spreads in healthcare settings**. Unlike most *Candida*, *C. auris* colonizes the skin and survives for long periods on surfaces and equipment. It moves from patient to patient in hospitals and long-term care facilities, and some common disinfectants do not reliably kill it. This is why a single case triggers a containment response.\n3. **It is easily misidentified**. Standard laboratory methods often mistake *C. auris* for other yeasts, which delays both correct treatment and infection-control measures. Reliable identification usually requires [MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmaldi-tof-ms-principle-applications-microbiology\u002F) or molecular methods.\n\n## Transmission\n\n*C. auris* spreads mainly in healthcare settings, in three linked ways. First, it colonizes the skin of patients, often without causing any symptoms. A colonized patient carries the organism on their skin and can pass it on without being sick themselves. Second, it contaminates the environment. *C. auris* survives for weeks on bed rails, equipment, and other surfaces, and resists some routine disinfectants, so it persists in the patient's surroundings. Third, it transfers by contact, from patient to patient on the hands of healthcare workers, on shared equipment, and through the contaminated environment.\n\nColonization is the key to understanding its spread. Skin colonization is silent, so the organism moves through a ward before anyone is obviously infected. This is why control depends on screening at-risk patients on admission, isolating those who are colonized or infected, strict hand hygiene, and thorough cleaning with disinfectants proven to work against *C. auris*.\n\nIt is not spread through casual community contact in the way respiratory viruses are. The risk is concentrated in hospitals and long-term care facilities, among patients with serious underlying illness.\n\n## People at risk\n\nPatients who have been hospitalized in a healthcare facility a long time, have a central venous catheter, or other lines or tubes entering their body, or have previously received antibiotics or antifungal medications, appear to be at the highest risk of infection with this yeast.\n\n## Candida auris vs Candida albicans\n\nYou may be confused *C. auris* with the familiar *Candida albicans*. They are both *Candida* yeasts, but they behave very differently, and the differences are exactly what make *C. auris* dangerous.\n\n| Feature | *Candida albicans* | *Candida auris* |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Familiarity | Common, well known, taught in detail | Emerging, recognized since 2009 |\n| Normal habitat | Human commensal (gut, mouth, genital tract) | Colonizes skin; survives on surfaces |\n| Drug resistance | Usually susceptible to first-line drugs | Often multidrug-resistant; some pan-resistant |\n| Hospital spread | Rarely spreads between patients | Spreads readily in healthcare settings |\n| Identification | Straightforward (germ tube, routine methods) | Easily misidentified; needs MALDI-TOF or molecular |\n| Germ tube test | Positive | Negative |\n| Main concern | Individual infection | Outbreaks and infection control |\n\n**The practical message**: *C. albicans* is mainly a problem for the individual patient, while *C. auris* is also a problem for the whole ward. For the general biology of *Candida* and how *C. albicans* is identified, see the main [article on *Candida albicans*.](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fcandida-albicans-pathogenesis-diagnosis\u002F)\n\n## Infections caused by C. auris\n\n- Blood stream infection (in some patients it can spread throughout the body causing serious invasive infections).\n- Wound infection\n- Ear infection\n\n> C. auris got its name because it was isolated from a patient with an ear infection in Japan. Auris is the Latin word for ear.\n\nMore than 1 in 3 patients with invasive *C. auris* infection (for example, an infection that affects the blood, heart, or brain) die. It also has been isolated from respiratory and urine specimens, but it is unclear if it causes infections in the lung or bladder.\n\n## Laboratory Diagnosis\n\n**Sample**: Blood or other body fluids\n\n**Candida auris under the microscope**\n\n*C. auris* looks like a fairly ordinary yeast. It appears as oval budding yeast cells and, like other *Candida*, stains Gram-positive on a Gram stain. It usually does not form true hyphae, and unlike *Candida albicans* it is germ-tube negative.\n\nThe important point is that microscopy alone cannot identify *C. auris* or distinguish it from other *Candida* species. Its appearance is not distinctive enough, which is exactly why it is so often misidentified and why species-level identification depends on MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry or molecular methods.\n\n## Culture\n\n![Candida auris colonies - Candida auriscolonies](\u002Fblogs\u002Fcandia_auris-colonies.png)Figure: *Candida auris* colonies\n\nCulture grows the organism, but telling *C. auris* apart from other yeasts, particularly *Candida haemulonii*, is difficult. *C. auris* is frequently misidentified as other *Candida* species and related yeasts by traditional phenotypic identification systems such as VITEK 2 YST, API 20C, BD Phoenix, and MicroScan. Because of this, any yeast that cannot be confidently identified, or that is reported as *Candida haemulonii* or another uncommon species from an at-risk patient, should raise suspicion for *C. auris* and be sent for confirmatory testing.\n\n### MALDI-TOF\n\nSpecial laboratory tests are needed to identify *C. auris.* Diagnostic devices based on [matrix-assisted laser desorption\u002Fionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF)](\u002Fmaldi-tof-ms-principle-applications-microbiology\u002F) can differentiate *C. auris* from other *Candida* species.\n\n## Treatment\n\nFor invasive *C. auris* infection, an echinocandin is the recommended first-line treatment, started before susceptibility results are available. Treatment is guided by susceptibility testing once it is available, because resistance is common. Some isolates are resistant to all three main antifungal classes (azoles, echinocandins, and polyenes), and these pan-resistant infections are very difficult to treat and may require combinations of antifungals under specialist guidance.\n\nAn important distinction: antifungal treatment is for patients with actual *C. auris* infection, not for patients who are only colonized. Colonized patients are managed with infection-control measures, not antifungal drugs. This article gives class-level guidance only; regimens are decided by the treating clinician.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Auris means ear.** *C. auris* was first isolated from an ear infection in Japan; \"auris\" is Latin for ear.\n\n**A ward problem, not just a patient problem.** Unlike ordinary *Candida*, *C. auris* colonizes skin, survives on surfaces, and spreads between patients, so it is an infection-control emergency.\n\n**Silent skin colonization drives spread.** Patients carry it on their skin without symptoms, which is why it moves through a ward before anyone looks sick.\n\n**Echinocandin first, but check susceptibility.** Echinocandins are first-line for infection, but resistance is common, so susceptibility testing guides therapy. Treat infection, not colonization.\n\n**Easily missed.** Routine lab methods misidentify it. MALDI-TOF or molecular methods are needed.\n\n## Key exam facts\n\n| Item | Fact |\n| --- | --- |\n| Organism | *Candida auris*, an emerging yeast |\n| First identified | 2009, Japan (named for an ear isolate) |\n| WHO status | Critical-priority fungal pathogen |\n| Key trait | Multidrug-resistant; often azole-resistant, some pan-resistant |\n| Spread | Skin colonization, surface survival, person-to-person in healthcare |\n| Germ tube | Negative (unlike *C. albicans*) |\n| Gram stain | Gram-positive budding yeast (not distinctive) |\n| Identification | MALDI-TOF or molecular methods (routine methods misidentify it) |\n| Commonly confused with | *Candida haemulonii* and other *Candida* species |\n| First-line treatment | Echinocandin (for infection, not colonization) |\n| Mortality (invasive) | Roughly 30 to 60% |\n| Main sites | Bloodstream, wounds, ears |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"Candida auris is just another Candida albicans.\"** No. Both are *Candida* yeasts, but *C. auris* is often multidrug-resistant, colonizes skin, survives on surfaces, and spreads between patients. *C. albicans* rarely does these things.\n\n**\"You treat colonized patients with antifungals.\"** No. Antifungals are for actual infection. Colonized patients (carrying the organism without infection) are managed with infection-control measures.\n\n**\"A negative germ tube rules out Candida.\"** No. It helps rule out *C. albicans*, which is germ-tube positive. *C. auris* is germ-tube negative, so a negative result in the right setting should prompt further identification.\n\n**\"Microscopy can identify *Candida auris*.\"** No. It looks like an ordinary budding yeast and stains Gram-positive. It cannot be identified by appearance, which is why MALDI-TOF or molecular methods are needed.\n\n**\"C*andida auris* is spread in the community like a cold.\"** No. It spreads mainly in hospitals and long-term care facilities, among patients with serious underlying illness, through skin colonization, contaminated surfaces, and contact.\n\n**References and further readings**\n\n- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. *Candida auris* information for healthcare professionals. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.cdc.gov\u002Fcandida-auris\u002F>\n- World Health Organization. (2022). *WHO fungal priority pathogens list*. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fwww.who.int\u002Fpublications\u002Fi\u002Fitem\u002F9789240060241>\n- Sanyaolu, A., et al. (2025). *Candida auris*: a continuing threat. (Review; see PubMed Central.)",[50,53,56,59,62,65],{"question":51,"answer":52},"\u003Cp>What is \u003Cem>Candida auris?\u003C\u002Fem>\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Candida auris\u003C\u002Fem> is an emerging yeast that often resists antifungal drugs and spreads in healthcare settings. It was first identified in 2009 and is now found in more than 40 countries. The World Health Organization lists it as a critical-priority fungal pathogen.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":54,"answer":55},"\u003Cp>How does \u003Cem>Candida auris\u003C\u002Fem> spread?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly in hospitals and long-term care facilities. It colonizes the skin of patients (often without symptoms), survives on surfaces and equipment for long periods, and passes from patient to patient by contact, including on the hands of healthcare workers.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":57,"answer":58},"\u003Cp>Is \u003Cem>Candida auris\u003C\u002Fem> contagious in the community?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The risk is concentrated in healthcare settings among seriously ill patients. It does not spread through casual community contact the way respiratory viruses do.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Candida auris\u003C\u002Fem> different from \u003Cem>Candida albicans\u003C\u002Fem>?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>C. albicans\u003C\u002Fem> is a common commensal that is usually drug-susceptible and rarely spreads between patients. \u003Cem>C. auris\u003C\u002Fem> is often multidrug-resistant, colonizes skin, survives on surfaces, spreads in hospitals, and is germ-tube negative. \u003Cem>C. auris\u003C\u002Fem> is an infection-control concern, not just an individual infection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>Why is \u003Cem>Candida auris\u003C\u002Fem> hard to identify?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It looks like an ordinary yeast under the microscope and is easily misidentified by routine laboratory systems, often as \u003Cem>Candida haemulonii\u003C\u002Fem>. Reliable identification needs MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry or molecular methods.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Candida auris\u003C\u002Fem> treated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Invasive infection is treated first-line with an echinocandin, guided by susceptibility testing because resistance is common. Some isolates resist all antifungal classes. Colonized patients without infection are managed with infection-control measures, not antifungals.\u003C\u002Fp>",[69],"fungal-diagnostics",[71,99],{"slug":72,"title":73,"description":74,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":75,"createdDate":76,"lastUpdatedDate":77,"draft":46,"category":78,"image":42,"faq":79,"tags":98},"maldi-tof-ms-principle-applications-microbiology","MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry: How It Identifies an Organism in Minutes","How MALDI-TOF identifies bacteria and fungi in minutes: the role of the matrix, why time of flight measures protein mass, and why the protein fingerprint is species-specific. Plus its clinical uses and limits.","Nisha Rijal","2018-12-07","2026-07-30","lab-equipment",[80,83,86,89,92,95],{"question":81,"answer":82},"\u003Cp>How does MALDI-TOF identify a microorganism?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It measures the masses of the organism's most abundant proteins, mainly ribosomal proteins, to produce a mass spectral fingerprint. Because these proteins are conserved within a species but differ between species, the fingerprint acts as a species signature, which the instrument matches against a reference database to report an identification.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":84,"answer":85},"\u003Cp>What is the role of the matrix in MALDI-TOF?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The matrix is a small organic compound mixed with the sample that absorbs the laser energy and transfers a controlled amount to the proteins. This lifts the large protein molecules into the gas phase intact and gives them a charge, instead of shattering them. Without the matrix, the proteins could not be measured.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":87,"answer":88},"\u003Cp>Why is it called time of flight?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Charged protein ions are given an identical push by an electric field and then timed as they travel down a vacuum tube to a detector. Lighter ions travel faster and arrive sooner, heavier ions arrive later, so the flight time corresponds directly to the ion's mass.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":90,"answer":91},"\u003Cp>How fast is MALDI-TOF compared to traditional identification?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>MALDI-TOF identifies an organism from a colony in minutes, compared with the overnight incubation that biochemical test panels require. It does still usually need an isolated colony, so it speeds up identification rather than the culture step before it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":93,"answer":94},"\u003Cp>Does MALDI-TOF tell you which antibiotics to use?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. MALDI-TOF identifies the organism but provides no antimicrobial susceptibility information. A separate susceptibility test is still needed to determine which antibiotics will be effective.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":96,"answer":97},"\u003Cp>Why can't MALDI-TOF tell some organisms apart?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Organisms with nearly identical ribosomal proteins produce nearly identical fingerprints. For example, \u003Cem>Shigella\u003C\u002Fem> cannot be reliably distinguished from \u003Cem>Escherichia coli\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> can be hard to separate from other viridans streptococci, because they are too similar at the protein level.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":100,"title":101,"description":102,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":103,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":104,"tags":129},"candida-albicans-pathogenesis-diagnosis","Candida albicans: Gram Stain, Morphology, Pathogenesis, and Lab Diagnosis","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Candida albicans \u003C\u002Fem>stains Gram-positive and appears as budding yeast cells with pseudohyphae. Learn its microscopy, why it stains as it does, virulence and pathogenesis, the diseases it causes, and how it is identified in the lab.\u003C\u002Fp>","2016-03-14",[105,108,111,114,117,120,123,126],{"question":106,"answer":107},"\u003Cp>Is \u003Cem>Candida albicans\u003C\u002Fem> Gram-positive or Gram-negative?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It stains Gram-positive (purple). But \u003Cem>Candida\u003C\u002Fem> is a yeast, not a bacterium, and has no peptidoglycan cell wall, so it is best understood as a yeast that stains Gram-positive rather than a true Gram-positive bacterium. Its staining can be uneven (Gram-variable).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":109,"answer":110},"\u003Cp>What does\u003Cem> Candida albicans\u003C\u002Fem> look like under the microscope?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Oval budding yeast cells (blastoconidia) about 3 to 6 micrometers, often with pseudohyphae, which are chains of elongated cells with constrictions at the junctions. In tissue it can also form true hyphae.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":112,"answer":113},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between pseudohyphae and true hyphae?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Pseudohyphae are chains of elongated yeast cells with constrictions where the cells join. True hyphae have parallel walls and no constrictions.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":115,"answer":116},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Candida albicans\u003C\u002Fem> identified in the lab?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Presumptively by a positive germ tube test and \"feet\" on blood agar, and by chlamydospore formation on cornmeal agar. Definitive identification uses automated systems, MALDI-TOF, or molecular methods.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":118,"answer":119},"\u003Cp>What is the germ tube test?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A rapid presumptive test where \u003Cem>Candida albicans\u003C\u002Fem> forms a short hyphal outgrowth in serum. A positive result suggests \u003Cem>C. albicans\u003C\u002Fem>, though \u003Cem>C. dubliniensis\u003C\u002Fem> can also be positive.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":121,"answer":122},"\u003Cp>What diseases does \u003Cem>Candida albicans\u003C\u002Fem> cause?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Oral thrush, vaginal thrush, skin and nail infections, and, in immunocompromised or seriously ill patients, candidemia and disseminated infection affecting deep organs.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":124,"answer":125},"\u003Cp>How is \u003Cem>Candida\u003C\u002Fem> infection treated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mucocutaneous disease is treated with topical or oral azoles. Invasive candidiasis and candidemia are treated first-line with an echinocandin. Some species, such as \u003Cem>C. krusei\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>C. auris\u003C\u002Fem>, are drug-resistant, so identification guides treatment.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":127,"answer":128},"\u003Cp>Why can \u003Cem>Candida\u003C\u002Fem> be mistaken for \u003Cem>Staphylococcus\u003C\u002Fem> on culture?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>On blood agar both can form creamy white colonies. A Gram stain or wet mount quickly distinguishes them, since \u003Cem>Candida\u003C\u002Fem> shows large budding yeast cells rather than clusters of cocci. This matters most with high vaginal swabs.\u003C\u002Fp>",[69],{"enabled":131,"threads":132,"total":133},true,[],0,[135,141,148,155,161,166,172,177,183,186,192],{"slug":136,"name":43,"description":137,"image":138,"body":139,"postCount":140},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":142,"name":143,"description":144,"image":145,"body":146,"postCount":147},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":149,"name":150,"description":151,"image":152,"body":153,"postCount":154},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":156,"name":157,"description":151,"image":158,"body":159,"postCount":160},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":162,"name":163,"description":151,"image":42,"body":164,"postCount":165},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":167,"name":168,"description":169,"image":42,"body":170,"postCount":171},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":173,"name":174,"description":175,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":178,"name":179,"description":151,"image":180,"body":181,"postCount":182},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":184,"name":185,"description":175,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":187,"name":75,"description":188,"image":189,"body":190,"postCount":191},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":193,"name":194,"description":195,"image":196,"body":197,"postCount":176},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[199,206,212,217,222,227,231,235,239,244,248,253,257,262,267,271,275,279,284,289,293,297,301,306,310,314,318,322,327,332,336,340,344,348,352,356,360,364,368,372,376,380,384,388,392,396,399,403,408,412,416,420,424,428,432,436,440,444,448,452,456,460,464,468,472,476,480,484,487,491],{"slug":200,"name":201,"description":202,"image":203,"body":204,"postCount":205},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":207,"name":208,"description":209,"image":42,"body":210,"postCount":211},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":213,"name":214,"description":215,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":216},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":218,"name":219,"description":220,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":223,"name":224,"description":225,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":228,"name":229,"description":230,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":216},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":232,"name":233,"description":234,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":216},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":236,"name":237,"description":238,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":211},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":240,"name":241,"description":242,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":245,"name":246,"description":247,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":205},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":249,"name":250,"description":251,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":252},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":254,"name":255,"description":256,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":258,"name":259,"description":260,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":261},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":263,"name":264,"description":265,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":268,"name":269,"description":270,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":252},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":272,"name":273,"description":42,"image":42,"body":274,"postCount":165},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":276,"name":277,"description":42,"image":42,"body":278,"postCount":261},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":280,"name":281,"description":282,"image":42,"body":283,"postCount":243},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":285,"name":286,"description":287,"image":42,"body":288,"postCount":165},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":290,"name":291,"description":292,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":302,"name":303,"description":304,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":305},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":307,"name":308,"description":309,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":311,"name":312,"description":313,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":317,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":319,"name":320,"description":321,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":323,"name":324,"description":325,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":326},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":330,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":337,"name":338,"description":339,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":341,"name":342,"description":343,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":345,"name":346,"description":347,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":252},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":349,"name":350,"description":351,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":353,"name":354,"description":355,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":357,"name":358,"description":359,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":261},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":361,"name":362,"description":363,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":326},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":365,"name":366,"description":367,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":369,"name":370,"description":371,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":373,"name":374,"description":375,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":171},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":211},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":69,"name":397,"description":398,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":205},"Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":400,"name":401,"description":402,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":42,"body":407,"postCount":165},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":409,"name":410,"description":411,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":413,"name":414,"description":415,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":423,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":425,"name":426,"description":427,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":261},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":160},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":216},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":437,"name":438,"description":439,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":441,"name":442,"description":443,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":226},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":449,"name":450,"description":451,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":453,"name":454,"description":455,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":457,"name":458,"description":459,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":461,"name":462,"description":463,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":331},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":465,"name":466,"description":467,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":469,"name":470,"description":471,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":473,"name":474,"description":475,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":165},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":243},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":483,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":176},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":488,"name":489,"description":490,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":221},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]