[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fcMbbu5bAlfHFWMP_4IwyxrLDXTItZim4cutsqdGX0Bo":32,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":198},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"type":33,"data":34},"blog",{"slug":35,"title":36,"description":36,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":39,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"body":43,"faq":44,"tags":45,"related":47},"campylobacter-jejuni-disease-properties-and-laboratory-diagnosis","Campylobacter Jejuni: Disease, Properties, Lab Diagnosis",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2013-05-18","2026-07-05",false,"bacteriology","Campylobacter usually causes diarrhea (often bloody). It is the most common cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, enterocolitis, especially in children. It causes systemic infection (rarely) in children and debilitated adults. Systemic infections (bacteremia), mostly by *Campylobacter intestinalis.*\n\n![Drug Resistant Campylobacter serious threat to human being - Drug ResistantCampylobacterserious threat to human being](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002F3-campylocbacter-300x117.png)\n\u003Cfigcaption>Figure: Drug ResistantCampylobacterserious threat to human being\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\nDrug-resistant *Campylobacter* is one of the top 18 drug-resistant threats to the United States. CDC has categorized it under “Serious concern”.\n\n#### Important properties ofCampylobacter jejuni\n\n- Curved, gram-negative rods that appear either comma or S-shaped.\n- Microaerophilic (growing best in 5% oxygen rather than in  the 20% present in the atmosphere): [More info about the oxygen requirements of bacteria](\u002Foxygen-requirements-for-pathogenic-bacteria\u002F)\n- *Campylobacter jejuni* grows well at 42°C\n- Oxidase positive\n- Posses amphitrichous (bipolar) flagella\n\n![Campylobacter: Amphitrichous (bipolar) flagella  - Campylobacter: Amphitrichous (bipolar) flagella](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FCampylobacter-300x198.jpg)\n\u003Cfigcaption>Figure: Campylobacter: Amphitrichous (bipolar) flagella\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\n**Disease Transmission**\n\n1. Source: Cattle, chicken, dogs, etc\n2. Mode of transmission: Faecal-oral route {food (milk or meat products) and water contaminated with animal feces}. Human to human transmission can occur but is less frequent.\n\n**Reservoir of infection:** Domestic animals such as cattle, chickens, dogs, etc.\n\n#### Campylobacteriosis\n\n1. Symptoms (within 2-5 days of exposure):\n\nWatery foul-smelling diarrhea (may be bloody)\nnausea and vomiting (may be seen)\ncramping\nsevere abdominal pain and\nfever\n\n1. Can be treated with antibiotics\n2. Usually, self-limiting disease that typically lasts about one week.\n3. Some infected persons do not have any symptoms.\n\n*Campylobacter*infections are also associated with some autoimmune diseases:\n\n1. Guillain-Barré syndrome\n2. Reactive arthritis\n3. Reiter’s syndrome\n\n![Mechanism of Guilian-Barre Syndrome  - Mechanism of Guillain-Barré Syndrome](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002FGuillain-Barre-Syndrome.gif)\n\u003Cfigcaption>Figure: Mechanism of Guillain-Barré Syndrome\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\n**Guillain-Barré Syndrome**\n\nGI infection with *C. jejuni*is associated with Guillain-Barré syndrome\n\n- Most common cause of acute neuromuscular paralysis\n- Autoimmune disease\n- 40% caused by *C. jejuni* infection\n- Formation of antibodies against *C. jejuni* that cross-reacts with antigens on neurons.\n- Immune system attacks its own nerves; axons are attacked by antibodies against the bacteria *C. jejuni*, which react with proteins of the peripheral nerves.\n\n**Reactive arthritis (Reiter’s syndrome)**\n\n1. Infection with *C. jejuni* is also associated with reactive arthritis (Reiter’s syndrome)\n2. Painful swelling of joints often the knees and\u002For ankles.\n3. Other bacteria*e.g., Chlamydia trachomatis, Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia*also cause reactive arthritis.\n\n### Pathogenesis\n\n*Campylobacter jejuni* produces enterotoxins and cytotoxins.\n\n### Laboratory diagnosis\n\n![Campylobacter jejuni: Curve, S shaped gram negative bacteria - Campylobacter jejuni: Curve, S shaped gram negative bacteria](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fcampylobacter-jejuni-300x295.jpg)\n\u003Cfigcaption>Figure: Campylobacter jejuni: Curve, S shaped gram negative bacteria\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\n**Specimen:** Diarrhoeal or a dysenteric specimen containing blood, pus, and mucus. If immediate processing is not feasible specimen can be refrigerated up to 24 hours before culture as the organism are resistant to cold temperature.\n\n- Blood agar plate containing antibiotics (to inhibit the fecal flora) is the media of choice. Inoculated plates are incubated at **42°C** in a microaerophilic atmosphere containing 5% oxygen and 10% carbon dioxide.\n- Failure to grow at 25**°**C\n- Oxidase test: positive\n- Catalase test: Positive\n- Sensitive to Nalidixic acid\n\n**Note:** *Campylobacter intestinalis* does not grow at 42**°**C, but grows at 25**°**C and is resistant to nalidixic acid.\n\n**Drugs of choice for Campylobacter infection:** Erythromycin or ciprofloxacin is used successfully in*Campylobacter jejuni* enterocolitis.\n\n**References**\n\n1. Altekruse, S. F., Stern, N. J., Fields, P. I., & Swerdlow, D. L. (1999). Campylobacter jejuni–an emerging foodborne pathogen. *Emerging infectious diseases*, *5*(1), 28–35. [https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3201\u002Feid0501.990104](https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.3201\u002Feid0501.990104)\n2. Young, K. T., Davis, L. M., & Dirita, V. J. (2007). Campylobacter jejuni: molecular biology and pathogenesis. *Nature reviews. Microbiology*, *5*(9), 665–679. [https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002Fnrmicro1718](https:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002Fnrmicro1718)",[],[46],"gram-negative-rods",[48,54,60,67,87,123,156,191],{"slug":49,"title":50,"description":50,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":51,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":52,"tags":53},"burkholderia-pseudomallei","Burkholderia pseudomallei: Properties, Lab Diagnosis","2020-10-09",[],[46],{"slug":55,"title":56,"description":56,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":58,"tags":59},"acinetobacter-disease-properties-diagnosis-resistance","Acinetobacter: Disease, Properties, Resistance","2018-04-14",[],[46],{"slug":61,"title":62,"description":63,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":64,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":65,"tags":66},"helicobacter-pylori-properties-infection-diagnosis-treatment","Helicobacter pylori: Properties, Pathogenesis, Virulence Factors, Diagnosis, and Treatment","Helicobacter pylori infects half the world's population and causes peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer. Learn its properties (spiral GN rod, microaerophilic, urease-positive), virulence factors (CagA, VacA, urease, flagella), complete diagnostic tests (UBT, stool antigen, RUT, culture), and eradication treatment regimens.","2016-01-07",[],[46],{"slug":68,"title":69,"description":70,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":71,"lastUpdatedDate":72,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":73,"tags":86},"vibrio-cholerae-laboratory-diagnosis-confirmation","Vibrio Cholerae: Characteristics, Pathogenesis, and Lab Diagnosis","How to confirm Vibrio cholerae from a diarrheal outbreak: TCBS culture, string test vs Aeromonas, serotyping O1\u002FO139, and ORS-first treatment.","2013-10-23","2026-07-15",[74,77,80,83],{"question":75,"answer":76},"Why is oral rehydration salts (ORS) the primary treatment for cholera rather than antibiotics?","Cholera kills through dehydration and electrolyte loss caused by the cholera toxin permanently activating intestinal chloride secretion. Antibiotics clear the bacterium but do not immediately reverse the toxin's effect on cells already exposed to it. ORS directly addresses the physiological problem — replacing fluid and electrolytes as they are lost. A patient who receives antibiotics without adequate rehydration will still die of dehydration.",{"question":78,"answer":79},"Why is the string test not used as a standalone confirmatory test for V. cholerae?","Its specificity is only approximately 70%, meaning 30% of positive string test results come from organisms other than V. cholerae. It is a useful rapid screening step that, combined with TCBS colony morphology and oxidase positivity, substantially raises diagnostic probability — but serotyping with O1\u002FO139 antisera is required for definitive confirmation.",{"question":81,"answer":82},"Why do V. cholerae strains grow best in alkaline peptone water, and why is only the surface pellicle used for plating?","V. cholerae thrives at alkaline pH (8.5), which selectively inhibits most other gut organisms that cannot tolerate alkalinity. It is aerobic and grows preferentially at the oxygen-rich surface layer, forming a pellicle. Plating only from this surface layer concentrates V. cholerae while leaving the less-relevant deeper broth unused. Shaking the broth before plating destroys this enrichment by redistributing organisms throughout the medium.",{"question":84,"answer":85},"What is the difference between V. cholerae O1 Classical and El Tor biotypes clinically?","Both cause cholera clinically, but El Tor has largely replaced Classical biotype worldwide because it survives better in aquatic environments, spreads more easily, and colonises asymptomatically more often. The ongoing 7th pandemic (since 1961) is caused entirely by El Tor. Laboratory differentiation: El Tor agglutinates chicken RBCs (Classical does not) and is resistant to polymyxin B (Classical is sensitive).",[46],{"slug":88,"title":89,"description":90,"seoTitle":91,"seoDescription":92,"author":38,"createdDate":93,"lastUpdatedDate":94,"draft":41,"category":95,"image":37,"faq":96,"tags":121},"catalase-test-principle-uses-procedure-results","Catalase Test: The 3-Second Test That Separates Staph from Strep, and Five Ways It Lies","Bubbles in 3 seconds means Staphylococcus. But red blood cells bubble, nichrome loops bubble, and enterococci grown on blood agar bubble weakly. Learn what the catalase test actually detects, why streptococci cannot make the enzyme, and how to tell a true positive from the four things that imitate one.","Catalase Test: Procedure, Controls, False Results, and Interpretation","Run and interpret the catalase test with proper controls, distinguish staphylococci from streptococci, and avoid blood agar and loop-related false results.","2013-10-07","2026-07-18","biochemical-tests",[97,100,103,106,109,112,115,118],{"question":98,"answer":99},"What is the principle of the catalase test?","The catalase test detects the enzyme catalase, which breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Visible bubbling indicates a positive result. Reaction: 2H₂O₂ → 2H₂O + O₂.",{"question":101,"answer":102},"Why is the catalase test important in clinical microbiology?","It separates Staphylococcus (catalase-positive) from Streptococcus and Enterococcus (catalase-negative), guiding further identification. It also helps identify Mycobacterium tuberculosis and differentiate Bacillus from Clostridium.",{"question":104,"answer":105},"What causes a false positive in the catalase test?","False positives are caused by using metal loops (which non-enzymatically decompose H₂O₂), carrying over red blood cells from blood agar, or testing on Mueller-Hinton agar.",{"question":107,"answer":108},"What causes a false negative in the catalase test?","The most common cause is using colonies older than 24 hours. Catalase production is highest during logarithmic growth; older cultures produce less enzyme, leading to insufficient bubbling.",{"question":110,"answer":111},"What is the difference between the slide and tube catalase test?","The slide test is quicker but risks RBC carryover from blood agar. The tube test is preferred for blood agar cultures as it reduces false positive risk.",{"question":113,"answer":114},"Why should you not use a metal loop in the catalase test?","Metal loops non-enzymatically decompose H₂O₂, producing bubbles that mimic a true positive result. Use a platinum loop, wooden stick, or plastic loop instead.",{"question":116,"answer":117},"Are all Staphylococcus species catalase positive?","Almost all Staphylococcus species are catalase positive, distinguishing them from Streptococcus and Enterococcus. Rare catalase-negative staphylococcal strains exist, so results should be interpreted with other tests.",{"question":119,"answer":120},"What is pseudocatalase and which bacteria produce it?","Pseudocatalase is a cytochrome-based mechanism in some Enterococcus and Lactobacillus strains that weakly decomposes H₂O₂, producing delayed weak bubbling after 20-30 seconds — unlike the immediate vigorous bubbling of true catalase-positive organisms.",[46,122],"gram-positive-cocci",{"slug":124,"title":125,"description":126,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":127,"lastUpdatedDate":94,"draft":41,"category":95,"image":37,"faq":128,"tags":153},"overview-of-biochemical-tests-used-to-identify-bacteria-in-microbiology-laboratory","Biochemical Tests Used to Identify Bacteria in the Microbiology Laboratory","A complete guide to biochemical tests used in bacterial identification — 40+ tests organised by category with principle, positive result, and organisms identified. Includes IMViC, carbohydrate fermentation, enzyme detection, and commercial systems.","2013-05-07",[129,132,135,138,141,144,147,150],{"question":130,"answer":131},"What is the purpose of biochemical tests in microbiology?","Biochemical tests detect specific metabolic activities — enzyme production, sugar fermentation, gas production. Since metabolic pathways are genetically determined, the pattern of positive and negative reactions creates a unique fingerprint identifying a bacterial species. A battery of tests is always interpreted together for definitive identification.",{"question":133,"answer":134},"What is the IMViC battery and which organisms does it differentiate?","IMViC = Indole, Methyl Red, Voges-Proskauer, Citrate. E. coli: + + - -. Klebsiella pneumoniae and Klebsiella aerogenes: - - + +. Differentiates members of Enterobacteriaceae.",{"question":136,"answer":137},"Why is the catalase test performed before the coagulase test?","Catalase immediately separates Staphylococcus (positive) from Streptococcus\u002FEnterococcus (negative). Only after confirming catalase positivity does the coagulase test make sense to separate S. aureus from coagulase-negative staphylococci.",{"question":139,"answer":140},"What is the difference between the oxidase and catalase tests?","Catalase: detects H2O2 breakdown — differentiates Staphylococcus from Streptococcus (gram-positive cocci). Oxidase: detects cytochrome c oxidase — differentiates Pseudomonas from Enterobacteriaceae (gram-negative rods).",{"question":142,"answer":143},"What is the significance of urease production?","Rapid strong urease (2-4 hours): Proteus spp. and H. pylori. Moderate urease: differentiates Klebsiella (positive) from E. coli (negative). Also used in Mycobacterium species differentiation.",{"question":145,"answer":146},"What is the API 20E system?","Miniaturized commercial system with 20 micro-tubes of dehydrated biochemical substrates. After inoculation and 18-24 hours incubation, color changes produce a 7-digit code compared against the API database for species-level identification.",{"question":148,"answer":149},"Why are multiple biochemical tests needed?","No single test is specific enough — most have exceptions and cross-reactions. A battery of 5-10 tests interpreted together provides the specificity needed for definitive species-level identification.",{"question":151,"answer":152},"What is the difference between fermentation and oxidation in the O-F test?","Fermentative: acid in both open and sealed tubes. Oxidative: acid only in open tube. Non-reactive: no acid in either tube. Distinguishes Enterobacteriaceae fermenters from non-fermenters like Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter.",[122,46,154,155],"gram-positive-rods","gram-negative-cocci",{"slug":157,"title":158,"description":159,"seoTitle":160,"seoDescription":161,"author":38,"createdDate":162,"lastUpdatedDate":163,"draft":41,"category":95,"image":37,"faq":164,"tags":189},"oxidase-test-principle-procedure-and-oxidase-positive-organisms","Oxidase Test: Purple in 10 Seconds, Delayed, or a False Negative?","Purple in 10 seconds is positive. Purple at 90 seconds means something else. No color at all from a TCBS or MacConkey plate often means the test failed, not that the organism is negative. Learn to read the oxidase test the way a bench microbiologist does.","Oxidase Test: 10-Second Procedure, Controls, and False Results","Perform the oxidase test within the correct reading window, use appropriate controls, and recognize media, reagent, and timing causes of false results.","2012-12-29","2026-07-22",[165,168,171,174,177,180,183,186],{"question":166,"answer":167},"What does a positive oxidase test indicate?","Presence of cytochrome c oxidase in the electron transport chain. Does NOT mean the organism is a strict aerobe — Vibrio cholerae and Campylobacter are oxidase-positive but not strict aerobes. A positive result immediately excludes the Enterobacteriaceae family, which are all oxidase-negative.",{"question":169,"answer":170},"Why are Enterobacteriaceae oxidase-negative?","They lack cytochrome c oxidase, using other terminal oxidases (cytochrome bd, cytochrome bo) that do not react with TMPD reagent. Absence of cytochrome c oxidase is a defining characteristic of the entire Enterobacteriaceae family — making the oxidase test one of the most powerful single tests for separating gram-negative rods.",{"question":172,"answer":173},"Why must the oxidase test not be performed from MacConkey agar?","A lactose-fermenting colony on MacConkey acidifies its immediate surroundings. Below roughly pH 5.1 the cytochrome c oxidase reaction cannot proceed, so a truly oxidase-positive organism reads negative. The dyes in MacConkey and EMB can also obscure color development. The error is a false negative, not a false positive. Always subculture to nutrient agar, blood agar, or tryptic soy agar first.",{"question":175,"answer":176},"Why does a nichrome wire give a false-positive oxidase result?","Nickel and iron in nichrome oxidize TMPD directly, producing the same purple endpoint that the enzyme would, but with no enzyme involved at all. The result looks identical and means nothing. Always use a platinum loop, wooden applicator stick, or plastic loop.",{"question":178,"answer":179},"What is the difference between the standard and modified oxidase (Microdase) test?","Standard oxidase test: TMPD reagent applied to gram-negative organisms — differentiates Enterobacteriaceae from non-fermenters. Modified oxidase (Microdase): TMPD in DMSO applied to gram-positive cocci — differentiates Micrococcus (positive) from Staphylococcus (negative). Standard reagent gives unreliable results with gram-positive cocci.",{"question":181,"answer":182},"Why is timing critical in the oxidase test?","TMPD undergoes spontaneous auto-oxidation in air, turning purple without any bacterial enzyme activity. Purple within 10 seconds is a true positive. Purple at 60 to 90 seconds is reported as a delayed positive. Color appearing after 2 minutes is auto-oxidation, not a result, and a reagent-only blank paper will develop the same color. Do not interpret anything after 2 minutes.",{"question":184,"answer":185},"Is Acinetobacter oxidase-positive or negative?","Oxidase-NEGATIVE — an important exception among non-fermenting gram-negative rods. Pseudomonas aeruginosa (the other major non-fermenter) is oxidase-positive. Acinetobacter oxidase-negative vs Pseudomonas oxidase-positive is one of the key distinguishing tests between these two MDR nosocomial pathogens.",{"question":187,"answer":188},"What quality control organisms are recommended for the oxidase test?","Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 (positive control — dark purple within 10 seconds) and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 (negative control — remains colorless). If either control fails, discard the reagent batch, prepare fresh, and repeat controls before reporting patient results.",[190,46],"enterobacteriaceae",{"slug":192,"title":193,"description":194,"seoTitle":37,"seoDescription":37,"author":38,"createdDate":195,"lastUpdatedDate":40,"draft":41,"category":42,"image":37,"faq":196,"tags":197},"pseudomonas-aeruginosa-infection-mortality-pathogenesis-and-diagnosis"," Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Properties, Virulence Factors, Lab Diagnosis, and Antibiotic Resistance","Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a WHO Priority 1 critical pathogen causing HAP, VAP, burn wound infections, and cystic fibrosis lung disease. Learn its virulence factors (exotoxin A, T3SS, alginate), grape-like odour, pyocyanin, cetrimide agar selection, biochemical ID, and intrinsic antibiotic resistance mechanisms.","2012-12-06",[],[46],[199,205,212,217,221,225,230,235,239,243],{"slug":200,"name":38,"description":201,"image":202,"body":203,"postCount":204},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",433,{"slug":206,"name":207,"description":208,"image":209,"body":210,"postCount":211},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",81,{"slug":213,"name":214,"description":215,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":216},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor",32,{"slug":218,"name":219,"description":215,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":220},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya",20,{"slug":222,"name":223,"description":215,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":224},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi",6,{"slug":226,"name":227,"description":228,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":229},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor",10,{"slug":231,"name":232,"description":233,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":234},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",2,{"slug":236,"name":237,"description":215,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":238},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal",18,{"slug":240,"name":241,"description":233,"image":37,"body":37,"postCount":242},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",1,{"slug":244,"name":245,"description":215,"image":37,"body":246,"postCount":247},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","**Nisha Rijal** is a microbiologist and quality assurance specialist. She served for nearly 12 years as a microbiologist at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), Nepal's national reference laboratory, and continues to work as a consultant microbiologist in international public health organization. ",51]