[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fRKEzYGNsIHt3asYKw1m_JhNmHP94Kw1xvRjbcvMRfFE":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":140,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":204},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":43,"author":44,"createdDate":45,"lastUpdatedDate":46,"draft":47,"category":48,"image":49,"body":50,"faq":51,"commentsClosed":47,"tags":61,"related":62,"comments":136},"binary-fission-steps-types-and-examples","Binary Fission in Bacteria: Steps, Types, Generation Time, and Clinical Significance","Binary fission is how bacteria reproduce — one cell divides into two identical daughter cells. Learn the six steps, four types, generation times of key pathogens, and why doubling time determines how fast an infection can overwhelm the body.","Binary Fission in Bacteria: Steps, Timing, and Exam Traps","Follow the steps of bacterial binary fission, calculate generation time, compare division patterns, and recognize exam and laboratory interpretation traps.","Samikshya Acharya","2023-09-29","2026-07-05",false,"general-microbiology",null,"A patient arrives in the emergency department with fever, hypotension, and tachycardia; early septic shock. Blood cultures are drawn and sent to the laboratory. The causative organism, *Escherichia coli*, has a generation time of approximately 20 minutes. By the time the culture flags positive 24–48 hours later, a single bacterium that entered the bloodstream has theoretically divided into over a trillion cells.\n\nThis is the clinical reality of binary fission: the mechanism by which a single bacterium becomes a life-threatening infection within hours. Understanding binary fission is not an exercise in abstract cell biology. It is the reason why antibiotic timing matters in sepsis, why culture-based diagnosis takes the time it does, and why some infections (tuberculosis, with a generation time of 16–24 hours) respond so slowly to treatment while others (staphylococcal bacteraemia) progress so rapidly.\n\nBinary fission is the primary mechanism of reproduction in bacteria — a form of asexual reproduction in which a single parent cell replicates its DNA and divides into two genetically identical daughter cells. It is the simplest and fastest form of cell division, requiring no spindle apparatus, no nuclear envelope breakdown, and no gamete fusion.\n\nIn medical microbiology, binary fission is significant for two reasons: it explains how [bacterial populations grow ](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Ftypical-growth-curve-of-bacterial-population-in-enclosed-vessel-batch-culture\u002F)exponentially during infection, and it explains why different pathogens cause disease at different speeds. A bacterium divides once per generation time — the interval from one division to the next. This interval varies enormously between species, from 20 minutes for *E. coli* to 16–24 hours for *Mycobacterium tuberculosis*, and this difference directly determines the clinical course of the infection each organism causes.\n\nAlthough binary fission also occurs in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and some unicellular eukaryotes (Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena), this article focuses primarily on bacterial binary fission — the medically relevant form.\n\nAlthough binary fission and mitosis are similar, their purpose is different. Cells undergo mitosis cell division for cell growth or to repair old or worn out cells in multicellular organisms, but binary fission is necessary for reproduction purposes in unicellular organisms.\n\n## Why Binary Fission Matters Clinically\n\n**Generation time determines the speed of infection:**\n\nGeneration time (also called doubling time) is the time required for a bacterial population to double in number under optimal conditions. Because each cell divides once per generation time, a small initial inoculum can become a massive bacterial load with surprising speed.\n\n| Organism | Generation time | Clinical implication |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| *Escherichia coli* | \\~20 minutes | UTI, sepsis can escalate rapidly; blood cultures positive within 12–18 hrs |\n| *Staphylococcus aureus* | \\~27–30 minutes | Bacteraemia, food poisoning progress quickly; toxin production follows growth |\n| *Streptococcus pneumoniae* | \\~25–30 minutes | Pneumonia and meningitis can deteriorate within hours |\n| *Vibrio cholerae* | \\~18–20 minutes | Rice-water diarrhoea escalates to severe dehydration within hours |\n| *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* | \\~16–24 hours | TB develops over weeks to months; culture takes 3–6 weeks to yield growth |\n| *Mycobacterium leprae* | \\~12–14 days | Leprosy progresses over years; culture is essentially impossible |\n| *Treponema pallidum* | \\~30–33 hours | Syphilis progresses slowly through stages over months to years |\n\n> **The clinical logic:** Fast-dividing organisms cause acute, rapidly escalating infections (sepsis, meningitis, cholera). Slow-dividing organisms cause chronic, indolent infections (tuberculosis, leprosy, syphilis). This is why short antibiotic courses work for most bacterial infections but TB requires 6 months of multi-drug therapy — the organism's doubling time means fewer cells are in active division at any given moment, making time-dependent antibiotics less effective.\n\n**Generation time explains antibiotic timing:**\n\nMost bactericidal antibiotics — particularly beta-lactams and aminoglycosides — kill bacteria most effectively when they are actively dividing. This is why:\n\n- Antibiotics must be started promptly in sepsis: every hour of delay allows the bacterial population to double multiple more times\n- Continuous infusion of beta-lactams may be more effective than intermittent dosing for slow-growing organisms\n- Dormant bacteria (*persisters*) that are not actively dividing can survive antibiotic courses and cause relapse — relevant in TB treatment\n\n**Exponential growth in practice:**\n\nIf a single *E. coli* cell enters the bloodstream with a 20-minute generation time:\n\n- After 1 hour: 8 cells\n- After 6 hours: \\~262,000 cells\n- After 12 hours: \\~68 billion cells\n- After 18 hours: \\~17 trillion cells\n\nThis is why the transition from early sepsis to septic shock can occur within hours, and why \"watchful waiting\" before starting antibiotics is inappropriate in suspected bacteraemia.\n\n## Steps of Binary Fission\n\nThis [asexual reproduction](\u002Fasexual-reproduction-types-and-examples\u002F), binary fission, occurs only under favorable conditions which produces two genetically identical offsprings. Binary fission completes within the following steps or processes:\n\n![ - Binary Fission Process](https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fbinary-fission.jpg)Figure: Binary Fission Process\n\n1. It begins with the initiation of replication of DNA from the site of origin of replication. The replication is bidirectional and results in duplicate DNA.\n2. After duplication, cells grow and increase in size. At the same time, various *Fts*(filamentous temperature sensitive) proteins interact to form a cell division apparatus known as a **divisome** that begins with the attachment of molecules of Ftsz in a ring around the center of the cell. The divisome forms when the cell is already elongating, and DNA is replicating.\n3. The **Ftsz** is the key Fts protein required for cell division. A Ftsz ring formed between two duplicate DNA determines the cell division plane. Similarly, at the beginning of Ftsz ring formation, small gaps in the wall forms by enzymes called autolysin by dissolving the bond between cell wall precursors. As a result, new cell wall material is added across the gap to form a new cell wall.\n4. As cell elongation continues and septum formation begins, two copies of chromosomes are pulled apart to their own daughter cell, which is assisted by various proteins, including **Ftsk** or **par** protein.\n5. The divisome arranges the synthesis of a new cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall material called the divisome septum as the cell reaches twice its original length.\n6. After the septum formation is complete, the cell pinches into two, forming two daughter cells. Similarly, Ftsz protein is dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of new daughter cells. The  shape  of the cell to be formed is determined by **MreB** protein during cell division. The time required for forming two daughter cells from a single mother cell during binary fission is known as **Generation time**.\n\n**Summary of binary fission steps:**\n\n| Step | Event | Key molecular player |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 1\\. DNA replication | Chromosome replication begins at oriC (origin of replication); bidirectional | DnaA protein initiates replication |\n| 2\\. Cell elongation | Cell grows to approximately twice its original length | MreB protein maintains cell shape during elongation |\n| 3\\. Chromosome segregation | Replicated chromosomes pulled to opposite cell poles | FtsK and Par proteins |\n| 4\\. FtsZ ring assembly | FtsZ polymerises into a Z-ring at cell midpoint; marks division plane | FtsZ (tubulin homologue) |\n| 5\\. Septum formation | Divisome synthesises new cell wall and membrane across the division plane | Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) — the target of beta-lactam antibiotics |\n| 6\\. Cell separation | Septum completes; autolysins cleave cell wall; two daughter cells released | Autolysins |\n\n> **Key exam point — beta-lactam antibiotics and binary fission:** The septum formation step (step 5) requires penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) to cross-link the new cell wall [peptidoglycan](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fpeptidoglycan-mureinmucopeptide-structure-and-medical-significance\u002F). Beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems) bind and inhibit PBPs, blocking septum formation and causing cell lysis. This is why beta-lactams are only effective against actively dividing bacteria — they specifically target the step in binary fission that builds the new cell wall.\n\n**In medical microbiology, the relevant type is transverse binary fission** — the type that occurs in bacteria. The other types (irregular in Amoeba, longitudinal in Euglena, oblique in dinoflagellates) are relevant for general biology but rarely tested in clinical microbiology examinations.\n\nBut generally, binary fission is divided into four types; **irregular**, **longitudinal**, **transverse,** and **oblique binary fission**.\n\n### Irregular Binary Fission\n\n- Cytokinesis\u002Ffission occurs through any plane but perpendicular to the plane of division of chromosomes, known as irregular binary fission.\n- This type of binary fission occurs in protozoans, i.e., *Amoeba.*\n\n### Longitudinal Binary Fission\n\n- Cytokinesis\u002Ffission occurs through a longitudinal plane, known as longitudinal binary fission.\n- This type of binary fission occurs in protozoan, i.e., *Euglena.*\n\n### Transverse Binary Fission\n\n- The division plane passes along the transverse axis, known as transverse binary fission.,\n- This type of binary fission occurs in bacteria, *Paramecium* and diatoms.\n\n**Oblique Binary Fission**\n\n- Cytokinesis\u002Ffission occurs obliquely, either left or right oblique, known as oblique binary fission.\n- This type of binary fission occurs in dinoflagellates, i.e., *Ceratium.*\n\n## Binary Fission vs Mitosis\n\nStudents frequently confuse binary fission and mitosis because both result in two genetically identical daughter cells. The differences are fundamental:\n\n| Feature | Binary Fission (Bacteria) | Mitosis (Eukaryotes) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Organism type | Prokaryotes (bacteria, archaea) | Eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi) |\n| Nuclear envelope | Absent — bacteria have no nucleus | Present — breaks down during prophase |\n| Spindle apparatus | Absent — FtsZ ring replaces this function | Present — microtubule spindle forms |\n| Chromosome number | Single circular chromosome (typically) | Multiple linear chromosomes |\n| DNA attachment | Chromosome attaches to cell membrane | Chromosomes attach to spindle via centromeres |\n| Speed | Faster — as little as 20 minutes | Slower — typically hours |\n| Purpose | Reproduction (entire organism divides) | Growth and cell replacement (within multicellular organism) |\n| Genetic variation | None — clones produced | None from mitosis itself; variation from mutation only |\n\n> **Why mitochondria divide by binary fission:** Mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have evolved from ancient endosymbiotic bacteria (endosymbiotic theory). They retain many bacterial characteristics — including binary fission as their division mechanism, their own circular DNA, and 70S ribosomes. This is why antibiotics targeting bacterial processes (like chloramphenicol, which inhibits 70S ribosomes) can affect mitochondrial function and cause toxicity in eukaryotic cells.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**Generation time is the single most clinically important concept in this article.** Everything else — the steps, the types, FtsZ — can be looked up. But the clinical implications of doubling time cannot be appreciated without understanding what exponential growth means in the context of a living patient.\n\n**The \"double every generation\" rule:** Starting from 1 cell: after n generations → 2ⁿ cells. With a 20-minute generation time: after 6 hours (18 generations) → 2¹⁸ = 262,144 cells. After 12 hours (36 generations) → 2³⁶ = \\~68 billion cells. This is why early antibiotic administration saves lives in sepsis.\n\n**FtsZ as a memory anchor for the mechanism:** FtsZ is the bacterial equivalent of tubulin. It forms the Z-ring that marks the division plane — the bacterial version of the mitotic spindle. Remembering \"FtsZ = bacterial tubulin at the division ring\" captures the entire cell division apparatus in one analogy.\n\n**Beta-lactam connection:** Binary fission step 5 (septum formation) requires PBPs to cross-link peptidoglycan. Beta-lactams block PBPs → block septum formation → block binary fission → bacteria lyse. The mechanism of the most widely used antibiotic class in medicine is directly explained by understanding step 5 of binary fission.\n\n**The generation time spectrum:**\n\n- Minutes (20–30 min): *E. coli*, *S. aureus*, *V. cholerae* → acute infections\n- Hours (16–24 hrs): *M. tuberculosis* → subacute\u002Fchronic infection, slow culture\n- Days (12–14 days): *M. leprae* → chronic disease, uncultivable\n- Remember: **longer generation time = slower disease = longer treatment course**\n\n## References\n\n1. Madigan, M. T., Bender, K. S., Buckley, D. H., Sattley, W. M., & Stahl, D. A. (2021). *Brock Biology of Microorganisms* (16th ed.). Pearson.\n2. Tille, P. M. (2017). *Bailey and Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology* (14th ed.). Elsevier.\n3. den Blaauwen, T., Hamoen, L. W., & Levin, P. A. (2017). The divisome at 25: the road ahead. *Current Opinion in Microbiology*, 36, 85–94. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1016\u002Fj.mib.2017.01.007>\n4. Egan, A. J. F., Errington, J., & Vollmer, W. (2020). Regulation of peptidoglycan synthesis and remodelling. *Nature Reviews Microbiology*, 18, 446–460. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002Fs41579-020-0366-3>",[52,55,58],{"question":53,"answer":54},"Why do antibiotics like penicillin only work on actively dividing bacteria?","Penicillin and other beta-lactam antibiotics work by inhibiting penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which are enzymes that cross-link peptidoglycan strands during cell wall synthesis in step 5 of binary fission — septum formation. When PBPs are blocked, the bacterium cannot build the new cell wall required to complete division, and the cell lyses under osmotic pressure. Bacteria that are not actively dividing — such as those in the stationary phase or dormant persister cells — are not synthesising new cell wall, so beta-lactams have nothing to inhibit. This is why antibiotic timing matters in sepsis: starting treatment early, when the bacterial population is in rapid exponential growth, maximises the killing effect. It also explains why tuberculosis, caused by a slow-dividing organism with a generation time of 16–24 hours, requires prolonged multi-drug therapy rather than a short course.",{"question":56,"answer":57},"Why does Mycobacterium tuberculosis cause such a slow, chronic disease compared to E. coli infections?","The fundamental difference is generation time — the time required for one bacterium to divide into two. Escherichia coli has a generation time of approximately 20 minutes, meaning it can double its population roughly 72 times in 24 hours. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has a generation time of 16–24 hours, meaning it divides only once or twice per day. This slow division rate means the bacterial population grows slowly, tissue damage accumulates gradually, and the infection progresses over weeks to months rather than hours. The slow division also affects antibiotic treatment: most bactericidal antibiotics require actively dividing cells to exert their effect, and fewer M. tuberculosis cells are in active division at any given moment. This is the primary reason TB requires 6 months of multi-drug therapy — not simply that the drugs are weaker, but that the target cells divide infrequently enough to survive short courses.",{"question":59,"answer":60},"What is the FtsZ protein and why does it matter in bacterial cell division?","FtsZ is a GTPase protein that is the bacterial functional equivalent of tubulin — the protein that forms the mitotic spindle in eukaryotic cell division. During binary fission, FtsZ monomers polymerise at the mid-cell position to form the Z-ring, which marks the division plane and recruits the divisome — the multi-protein complex that synthesises the septal cell wall and constricts the cell to complete division. Without FtsZ, bacteria cannot identify the correct division site and cannot complete cytokinesis. FtsZ is conserved across virtually all bacteria and is absent from most eukaryotes, making it an attractive target for novel antibiotic development. Several FtsZ inhibitors are in research and early clinical development as potential antibiotics against drug-resistant bacteria, including MRSA.",[],[63,102],{"slug":64,"title":65,"description":66,"seoTitle":67,"seoDescription":68,"author":69,"createdDate":70,"lastUpdatedDate":71,"draft":47,"category":48,"image":49,"faq":72,"tags":100},"typical-growth-curve-of-bacterial-population-in-enclosed-vessel-batch-culture","Bacterial Growth Curve: Phases, Generation Time, and Why It Determines Antibiotic Timing","Why some blood cultures stay \"negative\" for days before an organism finally shows up, and why the same antibiotic that clears a fast-growing infection can fail completely against dormant cells.","Bacterial Growth Curve: Phases, Calculations, and Antibiotic Timing","Follow the lag, log, stationary, and death phases of a bacterial growth curve, calculate generation time, and relate growth state to antibiotic response.","Acharya Tankeshwar","2013-05-11","2026-07-04",[73,76,79,82,85,88,91,94,97],{"question":74,"answer":75},"What are the four phases of a bacterial growth curve?","Lag, log (exponential), stationary, and death.",{"question":77,"answer":78},"What happens during the lag phase?","Cells don't yet increase in number, but they're metabolically active, synthesizing the components they need before they can begin dividing.",{"question":80,"answer":81},"What is generation time?","The time it takes for a bacterial population to double in number during the log phase; it typically ranges from 20 minutes to 20 hours depending on the species.",{"question":83,"answer":84},"Why do some bacterial cultures take much longer than others to show growth?","Organisms with an unusually long lag phase or generation time, such as certain fastidious organisms, can require extended incubation before visible growth appears, which is why some cultures need longer observation windows than routine bacteria.",{"question":86,"answer":87},"Why are actively dividing bacteria more vulnerable to antibiotics like penicillin?","Cell-wall-active antibiotics depend on the cell actively building new peptidoglycan. Cells in log phase are doing this constantly; dormant or stationary-phase cells are not, giving the drug far less to disrupt.",{"question":89,"answer":90},"Does a chemostat culture go through all four phases?","No. A chemostat continuously replaces nutrients, keeping the culture in log phase indefinitely; it never enters the stationary phase the way a batch culture does.",{"question":92,"answer":93},"Why are bacteria in the stationary phase more resistant to antibiotics than bacteria in the log phase?","Stationary phase bacteria develop antibiotic tolerance through several mechanisms related to their reduced metabolic activity. Most bactericidal antibiotics — particularly beta-lactams, aminoglycosides, and fluoroquinolones — require active cellular processes to exert their lethal effects: beta-lactams need active cell wall synthesis (which stops in stationary phase), aminoglycosides require an active proton motive force for membrane transport (reduced in stationary phase), and fluoroquinolones require active DNA replication. When bacteria enter stationary phase and reduce their metabolic rate in response to nutrient depletion, these antibiotic targets become inactive or less accessible. Additionally, a subpopulation of stationary phase bacteria enters a deep dormancy state as persister cells — cells that are neither growing nor dead but are metabolically inactive enough to survive antibiotic exposure. These persisters can resume growth when conditions improve, causing relapse of infection even after antibiotic courses that appeared successful.",{"question":95,"answer":96},"What is the difference between the growth curve of bacteria in batch culture versus continuous culture?","In batch culture (a closed system like a flask of broth), bacteria progress through all four phases — lag, log, stationary, and death — because nutrients are finite and waste products accumulate. Growth is self-limiting. In continuous culture using a chemostat, fresh medium is continuously supplied and spent medium with bacteria is continuously removed, maintaining a constant culture volume. By controlling the dilution rate (the ratio of flow rate to culture volume), the experimenter can hold bacteria in perpetual exponential growth at any desired growth rate. The chemostat prevents the stationary phase from occurring because it removes the two triggers that cause it: nutrient depletion and waste accumulation. Continuous culture is invaluable in research because it allows study of bacterial physiology under defined, steady-state conditions that mimic what bacteria experience in many host environments — nutrient-limited but not exhausted.",{"question":98,"answer":99},"How does the incubation period of an infectious disease relate to the bacterial growth curve?","The incubation period — the time between exposure to a pathogen and the onset of symptoms — corresponds broadly to the lag phase and early log phase of bacterial growth within the host. When a pathogen first enters host tissue, it must adapt to the new environment: synthesising enzymes appropriate for the available nutrients, repairing any damage sustained during transmission, and overcoming initial innate immune responses. This adaptation period is the lag phase. Only when the bacterial population has grown large enough to cause detectable tissue damage, trigger a significant immune response, or produce sufficient toxin does clinical illness become apparent — this corresponds to mid-to-late log phase. The duration of the incubation period is therefore influenced by the organism's generation time, the size of the initial inoculum, and the effectiveness of early host immune responses. This explains why a larger infectious dose typically causes a shorter incubation period.",[101],"bacterial-structure-physiology",{"slug":103,"title":104,"description":105,"seoTitle":106,"seoDescription":107,"author":69,"createdDate":108,"lastUpdatedDate":109,"draft":47,"category":48,"image":49,"faq":110,"tags":135},"peptidoglycan-mureinmucopeptide-structure-and-medical-significance","Peptidoglycan: Structure and Why It Is the Target of Penicillin","Peptidoglycan (murein): structure, NAG-NAM backbone, cross-linking, transpeptidase mechanism, Gram-positive versus Gram-negative differences, and why it is the single most important antibiotic target in medicine, complete with mnemonics and clinical stories.","Peptidoglycan: Structure, Gram Differences, and Antibiotic Targets","Explore the NAG-NAM backbone, peptide cross-links, Gram-positive and Gram-negative differences, and the cell-wall targets of major antibiotics.","2013-04-30","2026-07-31",[111,114,117,120,123,126,129,132],{"question":112,"answer":113},"Why are beta-lactam antibiotics safe for human cells?","Beta-lactams inhibit transpeptidase enzymes that cross-link peptidoglycan. Peptidoglycan exists exclusively in bacteria — completely absent from human cells which have no cell wall. Since beta-lactams target a molecule that does not exist in human cells, they have no mechanism of action against human tissue. This selective toxicity explains why beta-lactams remain among the safest antibiotics ever developed.",{"question":115,"answer":116},"Why is Mycoplasma pneumoniae resistant to all penicillins and cephalosporins?","Mycoplasma completely and permanently lacks a cell wall — no peptidoglycan, no transpeptidase target. Beta-lactams work exclusively by disrupting peptidoglycan cross-linking. No target = no action, regardless of dose or duration. This is intrinsic, complete resistance, not acquired. Must use macrolides (azithromycin) or tetracyclines (doxycycline) targeting protein synthesis instead.",{"question":118,"answer":119},"What is the difference between peptidoglycan in gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria?","Same fundamental chemistry — alternating NAG and NAM sugars cross-linked by peptide bridges — but different quantity and location. Gram-positive: thick layer (20-80 nm, up to 90% of dry cell wall weight) on outer surface, no covering membrane. Gram-negative: thin layer (2-7 nm, ~10% of dry weight) in periplasmic space, sandwiched between plasma membrane and LPS outer membrane. The outer membrane adds a barrier some antibiotics must cross.",{"question":121,"answer":122},"How does lysozyme destroy peptidoglycan?","Lysozyme (found in tears, saliva, nasal secretions, neutrophil granules) cleaves the β-1,4 glycosidic bond between NAM and NAG, fragmenting the structural backbone. Gram-positive bacteria with thick exposed peptidoglycan are more susceptible. Gram-negative bacteria are protected by their outer membrane blocking lysozyme access — though lysozyme plus EDTA (which disrupts the outer membrane) can still be effective.",{"question":124,"answer":125},"Why does Archaea lack peptidoglycan?","Archaea are a completely separate domain of life with different cell wall chemistry — pseudopeptidoglycan (pseudomurein), glycoproteins, or polysaccharides rather than true peptidoglycan. The absence of peptidoglycan is a fundamental molecular distinction supporting the three-domain classification. It also means antibiotics targeting peptidoglycan have no effect on Archaea — though no Archaea are known human pathogens.",{"question":127,"answer":128},"What is diaminopimelic acid and why is it significant?","DAP is a unique amino acid found in the peptide stem of most gram-negative bacteria and some gram-positive bacilli (Bacillus, Clostridium), replacing L-lysine found in most gram-positive bacteria. Found exclusively in bacterial cell walls (never in animal tissue) — potential biomarker for bacterial detection. The DAP biosynthesis pathway is absent in mammals, making its enzymes attractive novel antibiotic targets.",{"question":130,"answer":131},"How do vancomycin and beta-lactams differ in targeting peptidoglycan?","Beta-lactams: inhibit transpeptidase enzyme directly by binding its active site (enzyme inhibition). Vancomycin: binds directly to the D-Ala-D-Ala terminus of the peptide stem (substrate-level inhibition), physically blocking transpeptidase access. Vancomycin cannot cross gram-negative outer membrane through porins — effective only against gram-positive bacteria. Vancomycin resistance (VRE): D-Ala-D-Ala terminus modified to D-Ala-D-Lactate — 1000-fold reduced vancomycin binding.",{"question":133,"answer":134},"Why can beta-lactam antibiotics only kill actively dividing bacteria?","Beta-lactams inhibit transpeptidase during active cell wall synthesis — which occurs primarily when bacteria are growing and dividing. Dormant, non-dividing bacteria have minimal active peptidoglycan synthesis — little ongoing transpeptidase activity to disrupt. This explains why beta-lactams are far less effective against dormant persister cells, biofilm bacteria, and endospores. It is also why chronic and biofilm-associated infections are notoriously difficult to treat even with susceptible organisms.",[101],{"enabled":137,"threads":138,"total":139},true,[],0,[141,147,154,161,166,171,177,182,188,191,198],{"slug":142,"name":69,"description":143,"image":144,"body":145,"postCount":146},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":148,"name":149,"description":150,"image":151,"body":152,"postCount":153},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":155,"name":156,"description":157,"image":158,"body":159,"postCount":160},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":162,"name":44,"description":157,"image":163,"body":164,"postCount":165},"samikshya-acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":167,"name":168,"description":157,"image":49,"body":169,"postCount":170},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":172,"name":173,"description":174,"image":49,"body":175,"postCount":176},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":178,"name":179,"description":180,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":181},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":183,"name":184,"description":157,"image":185,"body":186,"postCount":187},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":189,"name":190,"description":180,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":181},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":192,"name":193,"description":194,"image":195,"body":196,"postCount":197},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":199,"name":200,"description":201,"image":202,"body":203,"postCount":181},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[205,212,218,223,228,233,237,241,245,250,254,259,263,268,273,276,280,284,289,294,298,302,306,311,315,319,323,327,332,337,341,345,349,353,357,361,365,369,373,377,381,385,389,393,397,401,405,409,414,418,422,426,430,434,438,442,446,450,454,458,462,466,470,474,478,482,486,490,493,497],{"slug":206,"name":207,"description":208,"image":209,"body":210,"postCount":211},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":213,"name":214,"description":215,"image":49,"body":216,"postCount":217},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":219,"name":220,"description":221,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":222},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":224,"name":225,"description":226,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":229,"name":230,"description":231,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":232},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":234,"name":235,"description":236,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":222},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":238,"name":239,"description":240,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":222},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":242,"name":243,"description":244,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":217},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":246,"name":247,"description":248,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":249},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":251,"name":252,"description":253,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":211},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":255,"name":256,"description":257,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":258},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":262,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":232},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":264,"name":265,"description":266,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":267},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":269,"name":270,"description":271,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":272},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":101,"name":274,"description":275,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":258},"Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":277,"name":278,"description":49,"image":49,"body":279,"postCount":170},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":281,"name":282,"description":49,"image":49,"body":283,"postCount":267},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":285,"name":286,"description":287,"image":49,"body":288,"postCount":249},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":290,"name":291,"description":292,"image":49,"body":293,"postCount":170},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":295,"name":296,"description":297,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":299,"name":300,"description":301,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":303,"name":304,"description":305,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":307,"name":308,"description":309,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":310},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":249},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":324,"name":325,"description":326,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":232},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":330,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":331},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":336},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":342,"name":343,"description":344,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":232},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":346,"name":347,"description":348,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":176},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":350,"name":351,"description":352,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":258},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":354,"name":355,"description":356,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":358,"name":359,"description":360,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":362,"name":363,"description":364,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":267},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":366,"name":367,"description":368,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":331},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":370,"name":371,"description":372,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":336},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":374,"name":375,"description":376,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":249},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":378,"name":379,"description":380,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":382,"name":383,"description":384,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":176},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":249},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":390,"name":391,"description":49,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":392},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":394,"name":395,"description":396,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":336},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":398,"name":399,"description":400,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":217},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":402,"name":403,"description":404,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":211},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":406,"name":407,"description":408,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":410,"name":411,"description":412,"image":49,"body":413,"postCount":170},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":232},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":423,"name":424,"description":425,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":427,"name":428,"description":429,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":181},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":431,"name":432,"description":433,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":267},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":435,"name":436,"description":437,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":165},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":439,"name":440,"description":441,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":222},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":443,"name":444,"description":445,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":336},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":232},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":392},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":461,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":463,"name":464,"description":465,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":249},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":467,"name":468,"description":469,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":336},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":471,"name":472,"description":473,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":475,"name":476,"description":477,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":249},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":479,"name":480,"description":481,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":170},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":483,"name":484,"description":485,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":249},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":487,"name":488,"description":489,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":491,"name":492,"description":49,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":181},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":494,"name":495,"description":496,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":227},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":49,"image":49,"body":49,"postCount":392},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]