[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fZ0SKPxqDMm-ZNfU2nQkBxnVFQvzGRDRubiCv-gXYD6M":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":233,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":296},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":50,"related":52,"comments":229},"bacteriology-mcqs-virulence-resistance-toxins","Bacteriology MCQs: Virulence Factors, Resistance and Toxin Mechanisms","\u003Cp>Ten mechanism-based bacteriology MCQs with explanations: mycobacterial phagosome survival, MRSA and \u003Cem>Pseudomonas\u003C\u002Fem> resistance, cholera and erythrogenic toxins, \u003Cem>Haemophilus \u003C\u002Fem>growth factors, and DNA gyrase.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2025-07-30","2026-08-28",false,"mcqs","1. The survival of Mycobacteria after ingestion by macrophages is attributed to\\\n   a. Bacterial inhibition of [complement activation via the alternative pathway](\u002Fcomplement-system-pathways-functions-regulation\u002F).\\\n   b. Bacterial inhibition of phagolysosome formation and interference with endosomal acidification\\\n   c. The poor immunogenicity of the cell wall glycolipids.\\\n   d. The bacterium’s rapid escape from the endosome into the cytoplasm of infected cells.\\\n   e. The bacterium’s resistance to oxygen-active radicals released into the phagolysosome.\n2. A 21 year newly married woman developed a urinary tract infection (UTI). At the time she sought medical advice, she was febrile and complained of painful urination and flank pain. Her urine appeared “cloudy”. Urine culture yields a lactose-fermenting, indole-positive, Gram-negative bacillus.\\\n   \\\n   The infectiveness of the organism responsible for this urinary tract infection is associated with specific,\\\n   a. Exotoxins\\\n   b. K antigens\\\n   c. Metabolic properties\\\n   d. P fimbriae\\\n   e. [Plasmids](\u002Fplasmids-properties-types-uses\u002F)\n\n![](\u002Fblogs\u002FMCQ-Bacteriology-11-20.png)3\\. The role of bacterial capsules as virulence factors is usually related to their ability to interfere with\\\na. Antibody binding\\\nb. B lymphocyte activation\\\nc. Antibacterial penetration of bacterial cells\\\nd. [Phagocytosis](\u002Fphagocytosis-mechanism-and-steps\u002F)\\\ne. The release of interferon-gamma and other macrophage activating cytokines\n\n4\\. A [mutation](\u002Fmutation\u002F) in DNA gyrase is likely to result in resistance to which one of the following antibiotics?\\\na. Amphotericin B\\\nb. Ciprofloxacin\\\nc. Penicillin\\\nd. Rifampin\\\ne. Streptomycin\n\n5\\. Resistance of *Staphylococcus aureus* to methicillin is most often caused by\\\na. alteration of the major target for the drug\\\nb. cell membrane impermeability\\\nc. decreased uptake of the antibiotic\\\nd. Inactivation of autolysins\\\ne. synthesis of a potent Beta-Lactamase\n\n6\\. The molecular basis for the effect of cholera toxin on duodenal mucosal cells is\\\na. activation of adenylate Cyclase\\\nb. inactivation of a G1 protein\\\nc. increased activity of potassium pumps\\\nd. increased generation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)\\\ne. ribosylation of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding protein.\n\n7\\. The synthesis of erythrogenic toxin by specific strains of [group A Streptococcus](\u002Fstreptococcus-pyogens-gas-common-characteristics-virulence-factors-diseases-key-tests\u002F) is determined by a\\\na. bacterial chromosomal gene\\\nb. gene carried by a lysogenic phage\\\nc. specific virulence plasmid\\\nd. [Transposon](\u002Ftransposons\u002F)\n\n8\\. Which one of the following factors, released by heating a suspension of sheep erythrocytes, is required for the growth of *Haemophilus Influenzae* in chocolate agar?\\\na. Coagulase\\\nb. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)\\\nc. Hemoglobin\\\nd. Hemolysin\\\ne. Protein A\n\n9\\. Which one of the following bacteria is most likely to be relatively resistant to antibiotics as a result of the relative impermeability of its cell wall?\\\na. *Haemophilus influenzae*\\\nb. *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*\\\nc. *Staphylococcus aureus*\\\nd. *Streptococcus pneumoniae*\\\ne. *Streptococcus pyogenes*\n\n10\\. A patient develops explosive, watery diarrhea 24 hours after eating seafood. What bacterium is most likely involved?\\\na. *Campylobacter fetus*\\\nb. *Salmonella typhimurium*\\\nc. *Shigella flexneri*\\\nd. *Vibrio cholerae*\\\ne. *Vibrio parahaemolyticus*\n\n## Answer key\n\n 1. b. Bacterial inhibition of phagolysosome formation and interference with endosomal acidification\n 2. d. P fimbriae\n 3. d. Phagocytosis\n 4. b. Ciprofloxacin\n 5. a. Alteration of the major target for the drug (penicillin-binding proteins)\n 6. d. Increased generation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)\n 7. b. Gene carried by a lysogenic phage\n 8. b. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), that is, factor V\n 9. b. *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*\n10. e. *Vibrio parahaemolyticus*\n\n## Why these are the answers\n\n 1. *Mycobacterium tuberculosis* survives inside macrophages by blocking phagolysosome formation and preventing the phagosome from acidifying. Normally a phagosome fuses with a lysosome and the merged compartment turns acidic to kill the microbe. *M. tuberculosis* arrests this fusion and keeps the compartment near neutral pH, so it persists in the very cell meant to destroy it. Option d describes a different strategy (escape into the cytoplasm, used by *Listeria* and *Shigella*, not mycobacteria), and option e is wrong because resisting oxygen radicals alone would not explain survival; the key is the fusion block.\n 2. P fimbriae. The organism described (lactose-fermenting, indole-positive, gram-negative bacillus from urine) is *Escherichia coli*, and uropathogenic *E. coli* attaches to the urinary tract using P fimbriae, which bind the P blood-group glycolipid on uroepithelial cells. This adhesion lets the organism ascend the tract and cause pyelonephritis (the flank pain and fever here point to kidney involvement). K antigens contribute, but the specific virulence structure tied to this ascending infection is the P fimbria.\n 3. Phagocytosis. A bacterial capsule is antiphagocytic: it masks the surface molecules that phagocytes and complement would otherwise grab, so the organism resists engulfment. This is why encapsulated organisms (*S. pneumoniae*, *H. influenzae* type b, *N. meningitidis*, *K. pneumoniae*) are more virulent, and why capsular polysaccharide vaccines work: antibody against the capsule restores phagocytosis (opsonization). The capsule does not block antibody binding or B-cell activation directly; its job is to evade being eaten.\n 4. Ciprofloxacin. DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) is the direct target of the fluoroquinolones, so a gyrase mutation reduces quinolone binding and confers resistance. The other drugs act elsewhere: penicillin on cell-wall synthesis, rifampin on RNA polymerase, streptomycin on the 30S ribosome, and amphotericin B on fungal ergosterol (not even antibacterial). Link the enzyme to the drug class: gyrase means quinolones.\n 5. Alteration of the drug target. Methicillin resistance in *S. aureus* (MRSA) comes from the *mecA* gene, which encodes an altered penicillin-binding protein, PBP2a, that beta-lactams bind poorly. Because the target itself is changed, the whole beta-lactam class fails, not just methicillin. Note the trap in option e: beta-lactamase (penicillinase) is the mechanism of ordinary penicillin resistance in *S. aureus*, but it is not how methicillin resistance works, methicillin was designed to resist that enzyme. The distinction between \"makes an enzyme that destroys the drug\" and \"changes the target so the drug cannot bind\" is the whole point of the question.\n 6. Increased generation of cAMP. Cholera toxin ADP-ribosylates the Gs regulatory protein, locking adenylate cyclase in the \"on\" state. Adenylate cyclase then pours out cyclic AMP, and the sustained high cAMP drives massive secretion of chloride and water into the gut lumen, producing the watery diarrhea of cholera. Options a and e describe steps in the pathway, but the molecular basis of the *effect* on the mucosal cell is the rise in cAMP itself; that is the second messenger doing the damage.\n 7. A gene carried by a lysogenic phage. The erythrogenic (pyrogenic) toxin of group A *Streptococcus*, which produces the rash of scarlet fever, is encoded not on the bacterial chromosome but on a bacteriophage that has integrated into the genome. Only strains lysogenized by that phage make the toxin. This phenomenon, where a phage gives its host a new virulence trait, is called lysogenic (phage) conversion, and the same mechanism explains diphtheria toxin and botulinum toxin.\n 8. NAD (factor V). *Haemophilus influenzae* needs two accessory growth factors: factor X (hemin, heat-stable) and factor V (NAD, heat-labile). On chocolate agar the red cells are gently heated until they lyse, which both releases intracellular NAD and destroys the NADase enzymes that would otherwise degrade it. That is why *H. influenzae* grows on chocolate agar but not on plain blood agar, where the factor V stays locked inside intact red cells. The question hinges on the word \"released by heating\": that points specifically at factor V.\n 9. *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*. Its outer membrane is strikingly impermeable, roughly a tenth as permeable as that of *E. coli*, because it lacks large general-diffusion porins and relies on selective channels instead. This low permeability, working together with efflux pumps, gives *P. aeruginosa* its high intrinsic resistance to many antibiotics. The distractor to reject is *S. aureus*: it is gram-positive and has no outer membrane at all, so impermeability of an outer membrane cannot explain its resistance. Whenever a question ties resistance to cell-envelope impermeability, think gram-negative outer membrane, and *Pseudomonas* above all.\n10. *Vibrio parahaemolyticus*. Explosive watery diarrhea within about a day of eating seafood, especially raw or undercooked shellfish, is the classic presentation of *V. parahaemolyticus*, a halophilic (salt-loving) vibrio found in warm coastal and brackish seawater. *V. cholerae* also causes watery diarrhea but is classically waterborne and epidemic rather than tied to a seafood meal; the seafood exposure plus short incubation points to *V. parahaemolyticus*.",[],[51],"bacteriology-mcqs",[53,82,111,137,170,194,217,222],{"slug":54,"title":55,"description":56,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":57,"createdDate":58,"lastUpdatedDate":59,"draft":46,"category":60,"image":42,"faq":61,"tags":80},"complement-system-pathways-functions-regulation","The Complement System: How Three Pathways Reach One Killing Blow, and How the Body Keeps It in Check","\u003Cp>The complement system explained by mechanism: how the classical, alternative, and lectin pathways all converge on C3, why C3 is the hub of the whole system, how the membrane attack complex kills, and how regulation stops complement from turning on the body. Convertases, opsonization, anaphylatoxins, deficiencies, and the exam points students miss.\u003C\u002Fp>","Srijana Khanal","2017-11-05","2026-08-13","immunology",[62,65,68,71,74,77],{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>What are the three pathways of the complement system?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The classical pathway, triggered by antibody bound to antigen; the alternative pathway, triggered directly by microbial surfaces without antibody; and the lectin pathway, triggered by mannose-binding lectin recognizing sugars on microbes. All three converge on the same enzyme, C3 convertase, and share the same final steps.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>Why is C3 so important in the complement system?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>C3 is the central protein where all three pathways meet. When C3 convertase splits C3, it does three jobs at once: C3b coats the microbe for phagocytosis, C3a drives inflammation, and C3b also builds the next enzyme that leads to the membrane attack complex. This is why C3 deficiency causes such severe, widespread infection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>What is the membrane attack complex?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is the killing structure of complement, built from the late components C5b, C6, C7, C8, and C9. It inserts into the microbe's membrane and forms a pore, so water and ions rush in and the cell bursts. It works best against Gram-negative bacteria, whose outer membrane it can reach.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":72,"answer":73},"\u003Cp>Why does complement not destroy the body's own cells?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because host cells carry regulatory proteins that microbes lack, such as DAF, MCP, factor H, and CD59. The early cascade actually fires on host surfaces too, but these regulators switch it off before it can do damage. Microbes cannot switch it off, so the cascade runs to completion only on them.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":75,"answer":76},"\u003Cp>What are anaphylatoxins?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They are the small complement fragments C3a, C4a, and C5a, which trigger inflammation by activating mast cells to release histamine. They are called anaphylatoxins because the reactions they cause resemble anaphylaxis. C5a is the most potent and also acts as a chemotactic signal that draws neutrophils to the infection.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":78,"answer":79},"\u003Cp>What happens if complement proteins are missing?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Different deficiencies cause different problems. Missing early classical components (C2, C4) is linked to lupus. Missing C3 causes severe recurrent bacterial infections. Missing the late components (C5 to C9) causes recurrent Neisseria infections, because the membrane attack complex cannot form. Faulty regulators cause diseases of over-activation, such as hereditary angioedema and atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],"innate-immunity",{"slug":83,"title":84,"description":85,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":86,"createdDate":87,"lastUpdatedDate":88,"draft":46,"category":89,"image":42,"faq":90,"tags":109},"plasmids-properties-types-uses","Plasmids: Properties, Types, and Functions","Plasmids: structure, types (R-plasmids, F-plasmid, virulence plasmids, Col plasmids), functions, and why they are the primary vehicle for antibiotic resistance spread worldwide. With clinical stories and comparison with the bacterial chromosome.","Nisha Rijal","2019-10-13","2026-08-25","general-microbiology",[91,94,97,100,103,106],{"question":92,"answer":93},"What is the difference between a plasmid and the bacterial chromosome?","Chromosome: essential genes, vertical inheritance only, replicates once per division. Plasmid: non-essential accessory genes (resistance, virulence), can transfer horizontally between species via conjugation\u002Ftransformation\u002Ftransduction, replicates independently.",{"question":95,"answer":96},"How do R-plasmids contribute to the antibiotic resistance crisis?","\u003Cp>A single R-plasmid can carry resistance to 5+ antibiotic classes simultaneously and transfer between species via conjugation in under 30 minutes. ESBL and carbapenemase genes are predominantly plasmid-encoded. This is why resistance spreads faster than mutation alone could explain.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":98,"answer":99},"What is the F plasmid and why is it historically important?","\u003Cp>Prototype conjugative plasmid of \u003Cem>E. coli\u003C\u002Fem>. F+ donors transfer to F- recipients via sex pili. When integrated into the chromosome (Hfr strains), it transfers chromosomal DNA at high frequency. This is the basis of the first \u003Cem>E. coli\u003C\u002Fem> chromosome mapping experiments in the 1950s-60s.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":101,"answer":102},"What are virulence plasmids and can removing them make bacteria harmless?","\u003Cp>Carry toxin\u002Fadhesin\u002Finvasin genes essential for disease. \u003Cem>B. anthracis\u003C\u002Fem> requires BOTH pXO1 (toxin) and pXO2 (capsule) plasmids for full virulence; ETEC requires its enterotoxin plasmid. Not universal, many pathogens (\u003Cem>M. tuberculosis, S\u003C\u002Fem>. Typhi) encode virulence chromosomally instead.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":104,"answer":105},"What is plasmid copy number and why does it matter?","\u003Cp>Average plasmid copies per cell. High-copy (15-200+): automatic maintenance, high protein yield, preferred for expression vectors. Low-copy (1-5): requires active partition systems, used when expressed protein is toxic at high levels.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":107,"answer":108},"What is the relationship between plasmids, transposons, and integrons in resistance spread?","Integrons capture individual resistance gene cassettes. Transposons carry integrons and jump between chromosome\u002Fplasmid. Conjugative plasmids transfer transposons (with integrons, with genes) between cells and species. This three-level cascade explains the efficiency of resistance spread.",[110],"bacterial-structure-physiology",{"slug":112,"title":113,"description":114,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":115,"lastUpdatedDate":116,"draft":46,"category":60,"image":42,"faq":117,"tags":136},"phagocytosis-mechanism-and-steps","Phagocytosis: Mechanism and Steps","\u003Cp>The steps of phagocytosis, from chemotaxis and opsonin recognition to the respiratory burst that kills the microbe, and what happens when it fails (chronic granulomatous disease). For micro and health-science students.\u003C\u002Fp>","2020-04-17","2026-08-09",[118,121,124,127,130,133],{"question":119,"answer":120},"\u003Cp>What are the steps of phagocytosis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The main steps are chemotaxis (moving toward the microbe), recognition and adherence (binding, often via opsonins), ingestion (engulfing into a phagosome), phagolysosome formation (fusion with a lysosome), killing and digestion, and elimination of waste by exocytosis.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":122,"answer":123},"\u003Cp>What is an opsonin?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An opsonin is a molecule that coats a microbe to make it easier to phagocytose. The two main opsonins are IgG antibody, recognized by Fc receptors, and the complement fragment C3b, recognized by complement receptors.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":125,"answer":126},"\u003Cp>What is the respiratory burst?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The respiratory burst is a sudden surge in oxygen consumption by the phagocyte, driven by the enzyme NADPH oxidase. It generates reactive oxygen species such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorite that kill the ingested microbe.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":128,"answer":129},"\u003Cp>What happens in chronic granulomatous disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>In chronic granulomatous disease, NADPH oxidase is defective. Phagocytes can still ingest microbes but cannot produce the respiratory burst to kill them, leading to repeated severe infections with catalase-positive organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus and Aspergillus.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":131,"answer":132},"\u003Cp>Is phagocytosis innate or adaptive immunity?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Phagocytosis is mainly an innate immune mechanism; it needs no prior exposure. It links to adaptive immunity when antibody acts as an opsonin to enhance it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":134,"answer":135},"\u003Cp>Which cells carry out phagocytosis?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Neutrophils usually arrive first at a site of infection, followed by macrophages.\u003C\u002Fp>",[81],{"slug":138,"title":139,"description":140,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":141,"lastUpdatedDate":142,"draft":46,"category":89,"image":42,"faq":143,"tags":168},"mutation","Mutation and Types of Mutations","\u003Cp>A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence. Learn the types (point, frameshift, and chromosomal), the difference between silent, missense, and nonsense mutations, and why mutations matter, including antibiotic resistance.\u003C\u002Fp>","2021-06-20","2026-08-15",[144,147,150,153,156,159,162,165],{"question":145,"answer":146},"\u003Cp>What is a mutation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A mutation is a permanent change in the nucleotide (base) sequence of DNA. A cell or organism that shows the effect of a mutation is called a mutant.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":148,"answer":149},"\u003Cp>What are the main types of mutations?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By how they change the DNA, mutations are point mutations (a single base change), frameshift mutations (insertion or deletion that shifts the reading frame), and chromosomal mutations (large changes such as deletion, duplication, inversion, or translocation). They can also be grouped by cause (spontaneous or induced) and by location (germline or somatic).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":151,"answer":152},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between silent, missense, and nonsense mutations?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>All three are point mutations. A silent mutation gives the same amino acid, so the protein is unchanged. A missense mutation gives a different amino acid. A nonsense mutation creates a premature stop codon, ending the protein early.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":154,"answer":155},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between a transition and a transversion?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A transition swaps a base for the same type (a purine for a purine, or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine). A transversion swaps across types (a purine for a pyrimidine, or the reverse).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":157,"answer":158},"\u003Cp>Why is a frameshift mutation usually more harmful than a point mutation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A point mutation changes at most one amino acid. A frameshift shifts the reading frame, so every codon after the mutation is read incorrectly. This usually produces a completely wrong and non-functional protein.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":160,"answer":161},"\u003Cp>How do mutations cause antibiotic resistance?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A random mutation in a bacterium can change the target of an antibiotic or help the cell remove the drug. When the antibiotic is present, that cell survives while others die, and it passes the mutation to its offspring. The antibiotic does not cause the mutation; it selects the cell that already had it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":163,"answer":164},"\u003Cp>Are all mutations harmful?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. Most mutations are neutral and have no meaningful effect. Some are silent. Only a minority are harmful, and a rare few are beneficial. The beneficial ones are the raw material for evolution.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":166,"answer":167},"\u003Cp>What is an example of a mutation that causes disease?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Sickle cell anemia is caused by a single missense mutation in the hemoglobin gene, which changes one amino acid (glutamic acid to valine) in the protein. This one change alters the shape of red blood cells.\u003C\u002Fp>",[169],"genetic-code",{"slug":171,"title":172,"description":173,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":174,"lastUpdatedDate":88,"draft":46,"category":175,"image":42,"faq":176,"tags":192},"streptococcus-pyogens-gas-common-characteristics-virulence-factors-diseases-key-tests","Streptococcus pyogenes (GAS): Properties, Pathogenesis, and Lab Diagnosis","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Streptococcus pyogenes \u003C\u002Fem>(Group A Strep) morphology, virulence factors like M protein and streptolysins, and bacitracin, PYR, and other tests for lab diagnosis.\u003C\u002Fp>","2015-11-08","bacteriology",[177,180,183,186,189],{"question":178,"answer":179},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between\u003Cem> Streptococcus pyogenes\u003C\u002Fem> and \u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> on a Gram stain?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both are Gram-positive cocci, but \u003Cem>S. pyogenes \u003C\u002Fem>forms chains while \u003Cem>S. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> forms lancet-shaped pairs (diplococci). Hemolysis also differs: \u003Cem>S. pyogenes\u003C\u002Fem> is beta-hemolytic (complete clearing), \u003Cem>S. pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> is alpha-hemolytic (partial, green discoloration).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":181,"answer":182},"Can a positive ASO titer diagnose an active strep throat infection?","No. Antibodies against streptolysin O take one to three weeks to develop, so a patient with active pharyngitis often still has a normal ASO titer. ASO is used retrospectively, to support a diagnosis of rheumatic fever or post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis after the throat infection has resolved.",{"question":184,"answer":185},"What is the difference between rheumatic fever and post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis?","\u003Cp>Both are non-suppurative sequelae of\u003Cem> S. pyogenes\u003C\u002Fem> infection. Rheumatic fever follows pharyngitis and results from M protein's molecular mimicry of cardiac tissue, leading antibodies to attack the heart. Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis can follow either pharyngeal or skin infection and results from immune complex deposition in the kidney.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":187,"answer":188},"\u003Cp>Why doesn't \u003Cem>S. pyogenes\u003C\u002Fem> form a walled-off abscess the way \u003Cem>S. aureus\u003C\u002Fem> does?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>S. pyogenes\u003C\u002Fem> lacks coagulase. Instead, it produces streptokinase and hyaluronidase, enzymes that dissolve fibrin clots and connective tissue rather than building a barrier, which is why its infections tend to spread diffusely instead of localizing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":190,"answer":191},"\u003Cp>Why is \u003Cem>Streptococcus pyogenes \u003C\u002Fem>called Group A Streptococcus?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Lancefield grouping classifies beta-hemolytic streptococci by differences in their C-carbohydrate cell wall antigen. \u003Cem>S. pyogenes\u003C\u002Fem> carries the Group A antigen, hence Group A Streptococcus (GAS).\u003C\u002Fp>",[193],"gram-positive-cocci",{"slug":195,"title":196,"description":197,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":198,"lastUpdatedDate":199,"draft":46,"category":89,"image":42,"faq":200,"tags":216},"transposons","Transposons: Jumping Genes and How They Spread Antibiotic Resistance","Transposons (jumping genes): types, structure, mechanism of transposition, insertion sequences, and why transposons are the primary engine driving antibiotic resistance evolution and the rise of MRSA. With clinical stories.","2013-04-29","2026-07-27",[201,204,207,210,213],{"question":202,"answer":203},"What is the difference between a transposon and an insertion sequence?","Insertion sequence (IS): simplest transposon — transposase + inverted repeats only, no passenger genes. Composite\u002Fcomplex transposon: IS elements (or similar) flanking passenger genes (often resistance genes), moving the entire unit including cargo.",{"question":205,"answer":206},"How do transposons cause antibiotic resistance?","Carry resistance genes as cargo, moving them between chromosome and plasmid via transposase-mediated cut-and-paste or copy-and-paste mechanisms. Most clinical resistance spread involves transposons assembling multi-drug resistance via sequential transposition into integrons and conjugative plasmids.",{"question":208,"answer":209},"What is the significance of Barbara McClintock's discovery?","Discovered transposons ('controlling elements') in maize in the 1940s — genes physically moving within chromosomes. Largely rejected for decades; awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine after transposons were found across bacteria, Drosophila, yeast, and humans (>40% of human genome).",{"question":211,"answer":212},"What is the role of integrons in antibiotic resistance?","Gene capture systems (integrase + attachment site + promoter) that capture individual resistance gene cassettes sequentially. Class 1 integrons, typically embedded within Tn21-family transposons on conjugative plasmids, can carry multiple resistance cassettes under one promoter.",{"question":214,"answer":215},"What is SCCmec and how did it create MRSA?","Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec — large mobile element carrying mecA (PBP2a, low beta-lactam affinity) that integrates at a specific S. aureus chromosomal site. Acquired from a coagulase-negative Staphylococcus via horizontal transfer; created MRSA. 13+ types identified, used for epidemiological tracking.",[110],{"slug":218,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":219,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":220,"tags":221},"mcq-microbiology-infectious-disease-bacteriology","2012-04-14",[],[51],{"slug":223,"title":224,"description":225,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":226,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":227,"tags":228},"mcq-microbiology-bacteriology-bacterial-skin-infections","Bacteriology MCQs: Bacterial Skin and Eye Infections","\u003Cp>Ten MCQs with explanations on bacterial skin and eye infections: carbuncle, scalded skin syndrome, scarlet fever, impetigo, acne, burn and eye infections, trachoma, and gas gangrene.\u003C\u002Fp>","2012-06-08",[],[51],{"enabled":230,"threads":231,"total":232},true,[],0,[234,240,247,254,260,265,271,276,281,284,290],{"slug":235,"name":43,"description":236,"image":237,"body":238,"postCount":239},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",480,{"slug":241,"name":242,"description":243,"image":244,"body":245,"postCount":246},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":248,"name":249,"description":250,"image":251,"body":252,"postCount":253},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":255,"name":256,"description":250,"image":257,"body":258,"postCount":259},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":261,"name":262,"description":250,"image":42,"body":263,"postCount":264},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":266,"name":267,"description":268,"image":42,"body":269,"postCount":270},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":272,"name":273,"description":274,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":277,"name":57,"description":250,"image":278,"body":279,"postCount":280},"srijana-khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":274,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":285,"name":86,"description":286,"image":287,"body":288,"postCount":289},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":293,"image":294,"body":295,"postCount":275},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[297,304,310,314,319,324,328,332,336,341,345,350,354,359,364,367,371,375,380,385,389,393,397,402,406,410,414,417,422,427,431,435,439,444,448,452,456,460,464,468,472,476,480,484,488,492,496,500,505,509,513,517,521,525,529,533,537,541,545,549,553,556,560,564,568,572,575,579,582,586,589,592,595,598,601,604,607,610,613,616,619,622,625],{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":301,"body":302,"postCount":303},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":305,"name":306,"description":307,"image":42,"body":308,"postCount":309},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":193,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":317,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":327,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":329,"name":330,"description":331,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":337,"name":338,"description":339,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":342,"name":343,"description":344,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":346,"name":347,"description":348,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":351,"name":352,"description":353,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":355,"name":356,"description":357,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":362,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":363},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":110,"name":365,"description":366,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":368,"name":369,"description":42,"image":42,"body":370,"postCount":264},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":42,"image":42,"body":374,"postCount":358},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":376,"name":377,"description":378,"image":42,"body":379,"postCount":340},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":384,"postCount":264},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":386,"name":387,"description":388,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":390,"name":391,"description":392,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":394,"name":395,"description":396,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":398,"name":399,"description":400,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":401},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":411,"name":412,"description":413,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":51,"name":415,"description":416,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":418,"name":419,"description":420,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":421},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":423,"name":424,"description":425,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":432,"name":433,"description":434,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":449,"name":450,"description":451,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":453,"name":454,"description":455,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":457,"name":458,"description":459,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":421},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":461,"name":462,"description":463,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":465,"name":466,"description":467,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":469,"name":470,"description":471,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":473,"name":474,"description":475,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":270},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":483},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":491,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":493,"name":494,"description":495,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":497,"name":498,"description":499,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":503,"image":42,"body":504,"postCount":264},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":506,"name":507,"description":508,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":270},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":510,"name":511,"description":512,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":514,"name":515,"description":516,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":518,"name":519,"description":520,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":522,"name":523,"description":524,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":358},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":526,"name":527,"description":528,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":349},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":530,"name":531,"description":532,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":313},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":534,"name":535,"description":536,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":538,"name":539,"description":540,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":542,"name":543,"description":544,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":546,"name":547,"description":548,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":483},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":550,"name":551,"description":552,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":81,"name":554,"description":555,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":557,"name":558,"description":559,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":561,"name":562,"description":563,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":565,"name":566,"description":567,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":569,"name":570,"description":571,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":169,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":275},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":583,"name":584,"description":585,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":587,"name":588,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":483},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":590,"name":591,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":593,"name":594,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":596,"name":597,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":599,"name":600,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":264},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":602,"name":603,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":483},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":605,"name":606,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":483},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":614,"name":615,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":421},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":617,"name":618,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":620,"name":621,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":483},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":626,"name":627,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":426},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology"]