[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fa9ErQY6Wlx8lkR9ZTSWiyKjj2gAd4jEBcvAhi_2CMZY":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":233,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":296},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":49,"related":51,"comments":229},"automation-microbiology-laboratory","Automation in the Microbiology Laboratory: A Step-by-Step Guide to the Instruments","\u003Cp>How each step of the microbiology workflow is automated, from media preparation to identification and susceptibility, and where standalone instruments end and full integration begins.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-09-07",false,"lab-equipment","Walk into a modern clinical microbiology laboratory and the automation is not one machine but many, spread along the path a specimen takes from the moment it arrives to the moment a result is reported. Some labs have automated a single step; others have connected the whole line. To understand laboratory automation in microbiology, the clearest way is to follow a specimen through the lab and see which step each instrument takes over.\n\n## What \"automation in microbiology\" actually means\n\nAutomation in the microbiology laboratory is the use of instruments to take over the manual, repetitive, and time-consuming steps of culture-based testing, so that trained staff can spend their time on the steps that need judgment. It is not a single machine or a single decision. It is a spectrum: at one end, a lab automates just one step (for example, a standalone instrument that prepares media); at the other, every step is connected into one continuous, conveyor-linked system.\n\nMicrobiology automated later than other laboratory disciplines, and for a concrete reason. Clinical chemistry and hematology work mostly with liquid samples in tubes, which are straightforward for machines to move and measure. Microbiology works with living organisms growing on solid media, which must be plated, incubated over hours to days, and read by looking at colonies. Automating that is harder, which is why it arrived decades later and why it looks different from automation elsewhere in the laboratory.\n\nThe rest of this article follows a specimen through the laboratory, step by step, and shows which instrument automates each step and where to read about it in detail. At the end, it shows what happens when all these steps are connected into one system.\n\n## Following a specimen through an automated laboratory\n\n**Step 1: Preparing the culture media.** Before any specimen is processed, the lab needs culture media, and making media by hand is one of the most laborious jobs in microbiology: weighing powder, dissolving it, sterilizing it, adding supplements, and pouring plates. Automated media preparation and dispensing systems take over the dissolving, sterilizing, supplement addition, and pouring, filling large numbers of plates at a consistent depth with minimal handling. See the full guide: [automation in culture media preparation and dispensation](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fautomation-in-culture-media-preparation-and-dispensation\u002F).\n\n**Step 2: Planting and streaking the specimen.** When a specimen arrives, it is inoculated onto the plate and streaked to spread it for isolated colonies. Done by hand with a loop, the pattern varies from one technologist to the next, which affects how well colonies separate. Automated specimen processors plant and streak the specimen in a uniform, reproducible pattern, improving colony isolation and freeing staff from a repetitive manual task. (This is the front end of the integrated systems described later; a dedicated guide to automated inoculation is planned.)\n\n**Step 3: Incubating the plates.** Plated cultures are incubated at a controlled temperature and atmosphere so organisms can grow. The instrument that does this, the laboratory incubator, is one of the most fundamental pieces of laboratory equipment, and automated systems add smart, continuously monitored incubation. See: [laboratory incubator](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Flaboratory-incubator-principle-parts-types-and-uses\u002F).\n\n**Step 4: Reading the plates and counting colonies.** After incubation, plates are examined for growth and colonies are counted, a step that is slow and variable when done by eye. Automated colony counters use a camera and image-analysis software to count colonies quickly and consistently, and to calculate results such as CFU\u002FmL. The same digital-imaging approach lets modern systems read plates on a screen rather than by handling each one. See: [colony counter](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fcolony-counter\u002F).\n\n**Step 5: Identifying the organism.** Once a colony is isolated, it must be identified. The manual route is a panel of biochemical tests read over hours; the automated routes are far faster. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry identifies an organism from its protein fingerprint in minutes, and automated identification systems run miniaturized biochemical panels read by machine. See: [MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fmaldi-tof-ms-principle-applications-microbiology\u002F) and [automated identification and susceptibility testing](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fautomated-identification-and-antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing\u002F).\n\n**Step 6: Testing antibiotic susceptibility.** Finally, the organism is tested against antibiotics to guide treatment. Automated systems measure growth in the presence of each drug and derive a minimum inhibitory concentration, applying an expert system that flags implausible or resistance-suggesting results for review. See: [automated identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fautomated-identification-and-antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing\u002F).\n\n**A parallel workflow: blood cultures.** Blood cultures follow their own automated path. An automated blood culture system continuously monitors sealed bottles and signals when an organism grows, replacing the manual checking of bottles. The flagged bottle then rejoins the main workflow at identification and susceptibility. See: [BACTEC automated blood culture system](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Fbactec-automated-blood-culture-system\u002F).\n\n## From standalone instruments to full integration\n\nThe instruments above can be bought and used one at a time. A laboratory might automate only its media preparation, or add a MALDI-TOF for identification, and otherwise work manually. This is how most laboratories use automation: a few standalone instruments automating the busiest steps.\n\nAt the far end of the spectrum, all of these steps are physically connected. Total Laboratory Automation (TLA) links specimen processing, inoculation, incubation, and digital imaging along a conveyor, so a plate moves from step to step without being handled, and, crucially, is imaged without ever leaving the incubator. TLA is not a different kind of automation; it is the integrated version of the same workflow this guide has walked through, with the individual instruments connected into one line. For how the connected systems work, their benefits, and their limitations, see the full guide: [Total Laboratory Automation in clinical microbiology](https:\u002F\u002Fmicrobeonline.com\u002Ftotal-laboratory-automation-tla-in-clinical-microbiology\u002F).\n\nThe choice along this spectrum is mostly about scale and cost. Standalone instruments suit laboratories automating their busiest steps; full integration suits high-volume laboratories where the throughput justifies the large investment. The direction of travel, in microbiology as in the rest of the laboratory, is toward more automation over time.\n\n## Why automate microbiology at all: the shared benefits\n\nAcross every step, automation is adopted for the same handful of reasons:\n\nAutomation frees skilled staff for skilled work, taking over the repetitive low-skill steps (making media, streaking plates, counting colonies) so that trained microbiologists spend their time reading complex plates, identifying organisms, and interpreting results. It improves consistency, because a machine streaks, pours, and reads more uniformly than a tired human at the end of a shift. It increases throughput, letting a laboratory handle rising specimen numbers without proportionally more staff. And, in the integrated systems, it shortens turnaround time, which means the right treatment reaches the patient sooner.\n\n## The shared limitations\n\nAutomation is not right for every laboratory, and the trade-offs recur across the instruments:\n\nThe dominant one is cost. Automated instruments are capital investments, and the fully integrated systems are very expensive; they pay off only where specimen volume is high and steady. Automation also creates dependency: when a central instrument or an integrated line fails, testing can stall, so laboratories keep a manual fallback and service contracts, and must maintain staff competence in manual methods so skills do not fade. And not every specimen or every step suits automation; some specimen types and some specialized media still need manual handling.\n\n## How to remember\n\n- **Follow the specimen, not the machine.** Automation in microbiology is a sequence of steps, each with its own instrument: media prep, planting, incubation, reading, identification, susceptibility. Understanding it means walking the workflow, not memorizing a list of machines.\n- **Standalone at one end, TLA at the other.** Most labs automate a few steps with standalone instruments. Total Laboratory Automation is the same workflow with every step connected. TLA is the destination, not a different road.\n- **The reasons are always the same four.** Free skilled staff, improve consistency, raise throughput, shorten turnaround. Every automated instrument is sold on some combination of these.\n- **The catch is always cost and dependency.** Automation is a capital investment that pays off at volume, and it centralizes risk, so a manual backup is never optional.\n\n## Key facts\n\n| Workflow step | What it does | Automated by | Read more |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Media preparation | Dissolve, sterilize, supplement, pour media | Automated media preparation and dispensing systems | Automation in media preparation |\n| Planting and streaking | Inoculate and spread the specimen for isolation | Automated specimen processors (integrated systems) | (guide planned) |\n| Incubation | Grow organisms at controlled temperature and atmosphere | Laboratory incubators \u002F smart incubators | Laboratory incubator |\n| Colony reading | Detect growth and count colonies | Automated colony counters, digital imaging | Colony counter |\n| Identification | Name the organism | MALDI-TOF; automated ID systems | MALDI-TOF; automated ID\u002FAST |\n| Susceptibility | Test the organism against antibiotics | Automated AST systems | Automated ID\u002FAST |\n| Blood cultures | Monitor bottles for growth | Automated blood culture systems | BACTEC |\n| Full integration | Connect all steps on one conveyor | Total Laboratory Automation (TLA) | TLA in clinical microbiology |\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n**\"Automation in microbiology means Total Laboratory Automation.\"** TLA is one point on a spectrum, the fully-integrated end. Most laboratories that use automation have a few standalone instruments (a media preparator, a MALDI-TOF, an automated susceptibility system), not a connected TLA line. Automation is the whole range; TLA is the most integrated form of it.\n\n**\"Automation replaces the microbiologist.\"** It replaces the repetitive manual steps, not the judgment. Reading complex plates, resolving flagged results, identifying difficult organisms, and interpreting results in the clinical context still need trained staff. Automation redirects expertise toward the work that needs it; it does not remove the expert.\n\n**\"If a lab is automated, every step is automated.\"** Rarely. Most automated laboratories automate their busiest steps and keep others manual. Weighing media powder, handling unusual specimens, and working up complex cultures are commonly still manual even in highly automated labs.\n\n**\"More automation is always better.\"** Only where the volume justifies it. Automated instruments are expensive capital investments that pay off at high, steady throughput. For a small, low-volume laboratory, manual methods can be more economical, and the dependency risk of centralized automation is a real cost.\n\n## References\n\n1. Croxatto A, Prod'hom G, Faverjon F, Rochais Y, Greub G. Laboratory automation in clinical bacteriology: what system to choose? *Clin Microbiol Infect.* 2016;22(3):217-235. doi:10.1016\u002Fj.cmi.2015.09.030\n2. Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology. Tille PM. 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.\n3. Leber AL, editor. *Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook.* 4th ed. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016. doi:10.1128\u002F9781683670438.CMPH\n4. Lippi G, Da Rin G. Advantages and limitations of total laboratory automation: a personal overview. *Clin Chem Lab Med.* 2019;57(6):802-811. doi:10.1515\u002Fcclm-2018-1323",[],[50],"laboratory-management",[52,78,101,128,155,183,192,223],{"slug":53,"title":54,"description":55,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":56,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":58,"tags":77},"automation-in-culture-media-preparation-and-dispensation","Automated Culture Media Preparation: What Gets Automated, Benefits, and When It Is Worth It","How automated media preparation systems handle dissolving, sterilizing, supplement addition, dispensing, and labeling, the manual pain points each step solves, the real benefits, and the cost trade-offs that decide whether automation fits your lab.","Ashma Shrestha","2022-06-20",[59,62,65,68,71,74],{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>What steps does an automated media preparation system handle?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It typically automates dissolving the powdered media, sterilizing it, adding heat-sensitive supplements, dispensing into plates or tubes, and labeling. Weighing the powder and measuring the water are usually still done manually by the operator.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>Why is automated supplement addition important?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Supplements like blood or urea are added after the medium cools, and adding them manually means opening the sterile vessel, which risks contamination. Automated systems add supplements through a sealed port or syringe without breaking the sterile seal, greatly reducing that risk.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>How many plates can an automated dispenser fill?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Throughput varies by system, but automated dispensers can fill on the order of several hundred to around 900 plates per hour, with consistent fill volume and a walk-away capability, far faster and more uniform than hand-pouring.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>Is automated media preparation cheaper than manual preparation?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Not upfront. These are expensive capital instruments. They save staff time and improve consistency, but they pay off only when a lab prepares media in high, steady volumes. For a small, low-volume laboratory, manual preparation is often more economical.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":72,"answer":73},"\u003Cp>Does automation completely remove the need for staff?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. An operator still weighs powder, sets up batches, monitors the system, and does the skilled bench work. Automation removes the repetitive, low-skill, and hazardous steps so staff can focus on tasks that need expertise, such as reading and interpreting cultures.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":75,"answer":76},"\u003Cp>What happens if the automated system breaks down?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Media supply can be interrupted, so labs that rely on automation should keep a manual fallback (hot plate, autoclave, manual pouring) and a service contract. This prevents a single equipment failure from halting testing.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":79,"title":80,"description":81,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":56,"createdDate":82,"lastUpdatedDate":83,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":84,"tags":100},"laboratory-incubator-principle-parts-types-and-uses","Laboratory Incubator: Principle, Parts, Types, Uses, and Why Cultures Fail","How a laboratory incubator works, its parts and types, the right temperature for each organism, and the common mistakes that make cultures fail. A practical guide for microbiology and lab science students.","2022-06-14","2026-08-21",[85,88,91,94,97],{"question":86,"answer":87},"What temperature is a laboratory incubator usually set to?","Most laboratory incubators are set to 35–37°C, which matches human body temperature and suits the majority of bacteria that cause human infections. Fungi are incubated cooler at 25–30°C, and some organisms need special temperatures such as 42°C for Campylobacter.",{"question":89,"answer":90},"What is the difference between an incubator and a hot air oven?","An incubator holds a low, controlled temperature (around 37°C) to grow microorganisms. A hot air oven reaches 160–180°C to sterilize glassware and instruments by dry heat. One promotes growth; the other destroys it.",{"question":92,"answer":93},"Why do some cultures need a CO₂ incubator?","Certain fastidious organisms, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria species, need an atmosphere with 5–10% carbon dioxide to grow. A CO₂ incubator supplies this from an external cylinder while still keeping oxygen present, which is different from an anaerobic environment.",{"question":95,"answer":96},"Why did my culture not grow even though the temperature was correct?","A correct temperature display does not guarantee growth. Common causes are an empty CO₂ cylinder, a door left ajar or a worn gasket leaking warm air, overcrowding that blocks airflow, the wrong temperature for that organism, dried-out medium, or a thermostat that has drifted out of calibration.",{"question":98,"answer":99},"Is a refrigerated or BOD incubator really an incubator?","Yes. It is called an incubator because it maintains a precise set temperature for growth. The difference is that it holds a temperature below room temperature (around 20°C or lower) using a cooling system, rather than only heating.",[],{"slug":102,"title":103,"description":104,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":56,"createdDate":105,"lastUpdatedDate":106,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":107,"tags":126},"colony-counter","Colony Counter: Types, Principle, Uses, and How Colonies Are Counted","How manual, digital, and automated colony counters work, how they connect to CFU\u002FmL counts and the 30–300 rule, and how to choose the right one for your lab.","2022-05-28","2026-07-17",[108,111,114,117,120,123],{"question":109,"answer":110},"What is a colony counter used for?","A colony counter is used to count bacterial or yeast colonies growing on an agar plate quickly and consistently. The count feeds decisions such as whether a urine culture crosses the significant-bacteriuria threshold, whether water is safe to drink, or whether a food or pharmaceutical sample passes a viable-count specification.",{"question":112,"answer":113},"What is the principle of a colony counter?","The principle is registering each distinct colony while the instrument keeps the tally. On a manual or digital counter, the operator identifies each colony and a pen touch or a mark increments the count; magnification and illumination only make the colonies easier to see. On an automated counter, a camera captures an image and software segments and counts the colonies.",{"question":115,"answer":116},"What are the types of colony counters?","There are three: manual (magnified, illuminated, gridded stage where the operator counts and tallies), digital or semi-automated (a pressure-pad pen that increments the count as the operator touches each colony), and fully automated (a camera and image-analysis software that count with little human input). The classic Quebec colony counter falls in the manual-to-digital range.",{"question":118,"answer":119},"Why are only plates with 30 to 300 colonies counted?","Below 30 colonies, random variation makes the estimate unreliable; above 300, colonies merge and are undercounted. The 30–300 range gives a statistically dependable count, which is why this is the countable window in most standard methods.",{"question":121,"answer":122},"How do you calculate CFU\u002FmL from a colony count?","CFU per mL = number of colonies counted ÷ (dilution factor × volume plated in mL). The colony counter provides the colony number; the dilution and plated volume come from the serial dilution and plating steps.",{"question":124,"answer":125},"Is a colony counter the same as a cell counter?","No. A colony counter counts visible colonies (each from one CFU) on an agar plate, so it measures viable, culturable organisms. A cell counter counts individual cells in a suspension (for example, in a counting chamber or an automated cell counter) and does not distinguish live from dead cells.",[127],"bacterial-enumeration",{"slug":129,"title":130,"description":131,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":132,"createdDate":133,"lastUpdatedDate":134,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":135,"tags":154},"maldi-tof-ms-principle-applications-microbiology","MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry: How It Identifies an Organism in Minutes","How MALDI-TOF identifies bacteria and fungi in minutes: the role of the matrix, why time of flight measures protein mass, and why the protein fingerprint is species-specific. Plus its clinical uses and limits.","Nisha Rijal","2018-12-07","2026-07-30",[136,139,142,145,148,151],{"question":137,"answer":138},"\u003Cp>How does MALDI-TOF identify a microorganism?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It measures the masses of the organism's most abundant proteins, mainly ribosomal proteins, to produce a mass spectral fingerprint. Because these proteins are conserved within a species but differ between species, the fingerprint acts as a species signature, which the instrument matches against a reference database to report an identification.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":140,"answer":141},"\u003Cp>What is the role of the matrix in MALDI-TOF?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The matrix is a small organic compound mixed with the sample that absorbs the laser energy and transfers a controlled amount to the proteins. This lifts the large protein molecules into the gas phase intact and gives them a charge, instead of shattering them. Without the matrix, the proteins could not be measured.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":143,"answer":144},"\u003Cp>Why is it called time of flight?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Charged protein ions are given an identical push by an electric field and then timed as they travel down a vacuum tube to a detector. Lighter ions travel faster and arrive sooner, heavier ions arrive later, so the flight time corresponds directly to the ion's mass.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":146,"answer":147},"\u003Cp>How fast is MALDI-TOF compared to traditional identification?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>MALDI-TOF identifies an organism from a colony in minutes, compared with the overnight incubation that biochemical test panels require. It does still usually need an isolated colony, so it speeds up identification rather than the culture step before it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":149,"answer":150},"\u003Cp>Does MALDI-TOF tell you which antibiotics to use?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. MALDI-TOF identifies the organism but provides no antimicrobial susceptibility information. A separate susceptibility test is still needed to determine which antibiotics will be effective.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":152,"answer":153},"\u003Cp>Why can't MALDI-TOF tell some organisms apart?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Organisms with nearly identical ribosomal proteins produce nearly identical fingerprints. For example, \u003Cem>Shigella\u003C\u002Fem> cannot be reliably distinguished from \u003Cem>Escherichia coli\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Streptococcus pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> can be hard to separate from other viridans streptococci, because they are too similar at the protein level.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":156,"title":157,"description":158,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":132,"createdDate":159,"lastUpdatedDate":160,"draft":45,"category":161,"image":42,"faq":162,"tags":181},"automated-identification-and-antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Automated Identification and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","\u003Cp>How automated systems identify bacteria and generate MICs, how they differ from manual methods, and when an automated result should be confirmed before it is reported.\u003C\u002Fp>","2026-08-31","2026-09-01","bacteriology",[163,166,169,172,175,178],{"question":164,"answer":165},"\u003Cp>How does an automated system identify a bacterium?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It runs a miniaturized panel of biochemical or enzymatic reactions in the wells of a card, incubates it, and reads each well optically. The pattern of reactions is matched against a database of known organism profiles, and the closest match is reported with a confidence measure. A low-confidence match is flagged for the microbiologist to resolve.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":167,"answer":168},"\u003Cp>How is an automated MIC produced?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The organism is exposed to antibiotic in the card, and the instrument measures how the bacteria grow in the presence of the drug. Some systems read the lowest concentration that stops growth across a dilution series, like a manual MIC. Others test a few concentrations, follow the growth curves at short intervals, and calculate the MIC from the growth rate. The reported value is an MIC either way.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":170,"answer":171},"\u003Cp>Why does the system flag some results?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An automated system checks each antibiogram against what is biologically plausible for the identified organism. It flags a result when the phenotype does not fit the identification, or when the pattern suggests a resistance mechanism such as ESBL, AmpC, or a carbapenemase. A flag is a prompt to check the identification or run a confirmatory test, not a sign the machine is broken.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":173,"answer":174},"\u003Cp>When should an automated result be confirmed before reporting?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Confirm when the identification confidence is low, when the resistance pattern is unusual or inconsistent with the organism, when the system flags a mechanism such as ESBL or carbapenemase, or when the result conflicts with the clinical picture. Confirmation may be a repeat test, a manual method, or a specific mechanism-detection test.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":176,"answer":177},"\u003Cp>Why is quality control so important on an automated system?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The instrument produces a confident-looking result for every isolate whether or not it is performing correctly that day. Reference QC strains with known expected results are run through the same process, and their results must fall within the expected range for that run to be reportable. If the QC is out of range, patient results from that run are not released until the cause is found and corrected, even if an individual result looks reasonable.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":179,"answer":180},"\u003Cp>What is the most common cause of a wrong automated result?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>An incorrectly prepared inoculum. A suspension that is too heavy or too light, or made from an impure or old culture, will produce wrong identification and susceptibility results no matter how accurate the instrument is. The inoculum density, usually a 0.5 McFarland standard or the system-specified density, is checked as part of every run.\u003C\u002Fp>",[182],"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing",{"slug":184,"title":185,"description":186,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":187,"lastUpdatedDate":188,"draft":45,"category":161,"image":42,"faq":189,"tags":190},"bactec-automated-blood-culture-system","BACTEC Automated Blood Culture System: Principle, Vials, and How It Detects Growth","\u003Cp>How the BD BACTEC system detects bloodstream infection: the CO₂ fluorescence principle, what the vials contain and why (SPS, resins), the vial types, how a positive is worked up, and how BACTEC compares with BacT\u002FALERT and VersaTREK.\u003C\u002Fp>","2019-11-15","2026-08-19",[],[191],"blood-culture",{"slug":193,"title":194,"description":195,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":196,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":197,"tags":222},"total-laboratory-automation-tla-in-clinical-microbiology","Total Laboratory Automation (TLA) in Clinical Microbiology: How It Works, Benefits, and Limitations","How total laboratory automation transforms the microbiology workflow, why uninterrupted incubation improves pathogen recovery and turnaround time, how digital plate imaging works, and the real cost and dependency trade-offs of TLA.","2022-05-20",[198,201,204,207,210,213,216,219],{"question":199,"answer":200},"\u003Cp>What is total laboratory automation (TLA) in microbiology?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>TLA is an integrated system that connects the individual steps of the microbiology workflow, specimen processing, plating, incubation, digital imaging, and colony reading, into one automated, track-linked line. It is not a diagnostic test; it is the infrastructure that moves and processes specimens through the laboratory with minimal manual handling.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":202,"answer":203},"\u003Cp>Why does TLA improve the recovery of fastidious organisms?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because plates are incubated continuously and imaged without being removed, growth is never interrupted. In a manual workflow, plates are repeatedly taken out to be read and stained, cooling them and changing their atmosphere, which can cause delicate organisms like \u003Cem>Neisseria gonorrhoeae\u003C\u002Fem> to be missed. Uninterrupted incubation preserves these organisms, improving recovery.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":205,"answer":206},"\u003Cp>How does TLA reduce turnaround time?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Uninterrupted incubation lets organisms grow faster and more reliably, and digital imaging allows plates to be read as soon as growth appears without waiting to physically retrieve them. This shortens the median time to a final result, so serious infections can be treated with the correct antibiotic hours earlier.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":208,"answer":209},"\u003Cp>How does digital imaging work in TLA?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A high-resolution camera photographs each plate at set intervals without removing it from the incubator. Staff read and annotate the images on screen, and the software can make simple calls such as growth versus no growth automatically, flagging only the plates that need human review. Images are archived for teaching and quality control.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":211,"answer":212},"\u003Cp>What are the main limitations of TLA?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It requires a very high initial investment, so it suits high-volume labs more than small ones. It handles liquid specimens well but not tissue or biopsy specimens. A system failure can halt testing, so a manual backup and service contract are essential. And reliance on automation can erode staff skills in manual methods over time.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":214,"answer":215},"\u003Cp>What are the main TLA systems used in microbiology?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The two most widely known are BD Kiestra and COPAN WASPLab. Both connect automated specimen processing and plating with smart incubation and digital plate imaging, so colonies can be read on a screen rather than by handling each plate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":217,"answer":218},"\u003Cp>Why is automation in microbiology different from other laboratory disciplines?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Microbiology works with living cultures that need incubation over hours to days, with plate handling and visual colony reading, rather than the liquid samples and immediate instrument readings of chemistry or hematology. TLA is built around that difference, its key advantage is uninterrupted incubation and digital imaging, which manual workflows interrupt every time a plate is removed to be examined.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":220,"answer":221},"\u003Cp>Is TLA the same as an automated blood culture system?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. An automated blood culture system (such as BACTEC) monitors blood culture bottles for growth. TLA is the broader workflow automation that handles plated specimens through processing, incubation, and reading. They automate different parts of the laboratory.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],{"slug":224,"title":225,"description":226,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":227,"tags":228},"microbiology-laboratory-design-and-layout","Microbiology Laboratory Design and Layout: How a Lab Is Organized and Why","\u003Cp>How a microbiology laboratory is laid out, the unidirectional clean-to-dirty workflow, zoning, biosafety cabinet placement, and the design principles that keep work safe and contamination-free.\u003C\u002Fp>",[],[50],{"enabled":230,"threads":231,"total":232},true,[],0,[234,240,246,253,259,264,270,275,281,284,290],{"slug":235,"name":43,"description":236,"image":237,"body":238,"postCount":239},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",516,{"slug":241,"name":56,"description":242,"image":243,"body":244,"postCount":245},"ashma-shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",88,{"slug":247,"name":248,"description":249,"image":250,"body":251,"postCount":252},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":254,"name":255,"description":249,"image":256,"body":257,"postCount":258},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":249,"image":42,"body":262,"postCount":263},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":265,"name":266,"description":267,"image":42,"body":268,"postCount":269},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":271,"name":272,"description":273,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":276,"name":277,"description":249,"image":278,"body":279,"postCount":280},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":273,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":285,"name":132,"description":286,"image":287,"body":288,"postCount":289},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",55,{"slug":291,"name":292,"description":293,"image":294,"body":295,"postCount":274},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[297,304,310,314,319,324,328,332,336,341,345,349,353,358,363,368,372,376,381,386,390,394,398,402,406,410,414,418,423,428,433,437,441,446,450,454,457,461,465,469,473,477,481,484,488,493,497,501,506,510,514,518,522,526,530,535,539,543,547,551,555,559,563,567,571,575,579,583,586,590,593,596,598,601,604,607,610,613,616,619,622,625,628,631,634,637,641,644],{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":301,"body":302,"postCount":303},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":305,"name":306,"description":307,"image":42,"body":308,"postCount":309},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":311,"name":312,"description":313,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",{"slug":315,"name":316,"description":317,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":327,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":329,"name":330,"description":331,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":333,"name":334,"description":335,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":337,"name":338,"description":339,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":342,"name":343,"description":344,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":182,"name":346,"description":347,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":348},"Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",22,{"slug":350,"name":351,"description":352,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":354,"name":355,"description":356,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":357},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":359,"name":360,"description":361,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":362},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":364,"name":365,"description":366,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":367},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",21,{"slug":369,"name":370,"description":42,"image":42,"body":371,"postCount":263},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":373,"name":374,"description":42,"image":42,"body":375,"postCount":357},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":380,"postCount":340},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":382,"name":383,"description":384,"image":42,"body":385,"postCount":263},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":387,"name":388,"description":389,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":391,"name":392,"description":393,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":395,"name":396,"description":397,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":399,"name":400,"description":401,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":367},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",{"slug":403,"name":404,"description":405,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":407,"name":408,"description":409,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":411,"name":412,"description":413,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":419,"name":420,"description":421,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":422},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":432},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",3,{"slug":434,"name":435,"description":436,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":438,"name":439,"description":440,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":357},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":442,"name":443,"description":444,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":445},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":127,"name":455,"description":456,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":357},"Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":458,"name":459,"description":460,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":422},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":462,"name":463,"description":464,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":466,"name":467,"description":468,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":470,"name":471,"description":472,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":474,"name":475,"description":476,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":269},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":478,"name":479,"description":480,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":482,"name":483,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":432},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":491,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":492},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",13,{"slug":494,"name":495,"description":496,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":498,"name":499,"description":500,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":502,"name":503,"description":504,"image":42,"body":505,"postCount":263},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":507,"name":508,"description":509,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":269},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":511,"name":512,"description":513,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":269},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":515,"name":516,"description":517,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":519,"name":520,"description":521,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":523,"name":524,"description":525,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":357},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":527,"name":528,"description":529,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":367},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":531,"name":532,"description":533,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":534},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",11,{"slug":536,"name":537,"description":538,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":540,"name":541,"description":542,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":550,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":432},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":552,"name":553,"description":554,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":556,"name":557,"description":558,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":560,"name":561,"description":562,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":564,"name":565,"description":566,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":568,"name":569,"description":570,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":323},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":572,"name":573,"description":574,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":582,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":584,"name":585,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":587,"name":588,"description":589,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":591,"name":592,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":432},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":594,"name":595,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":191,"name":597,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"Blood Culture",{"slug":599,"name":600,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":602,"name":603,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":605,"name":606,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":432},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":608,"name":609,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":340},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":611,"name":612,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":432},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":614,"name":615,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":617,"name":618,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":422},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":620,"name":621,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":318},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":623,"name":624,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":626,"name":627,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":432},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":629,"name":630,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"history-microbiology","History of Microbiology",{"slug":632,"name":633,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"trematodes","Trematodes",{"slug":635,"name":636,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":427},"coccidian-parasites","Coccidian Parasites",{"slug":638,"name":639,"description":640,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":303},"cell-structure","Cell Structure","\u003Cp>Articles related to Cell Structure. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":642,"name":643,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":232},"automation-in-microbiology","Automation in Microbiology",{"slug":50,"name":645,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"Laboratory Management"]