[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fyADo4OSDJ1RJoY8XKzI7qz-TQubFJ0fT-XoGMN4ZE7w":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":192,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":256},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":50,"related":52,"comments":188},"antimicrobial-stewardship-microbiology-laboratory","Antimicrobial Stewardship and the Microbiology Laboratory: How Bench Decisions Shape Prescribing","Antimicrobial stewardship is usually taught as a hospital program. This article teaches the part students actually need: how the microbiology laboratory drives stewardship through the antibiogram, selective reporting, resistance detection, and de-escalation.",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-03","2026-08-05",false,"bacteriology","A blood culture flags positive at 2 a.m. The patient is septic, and the team starts a broad carbapenem, the safe empirical guess. Two days later, the laboratory reports the organism as an *E. coli* susceptible to cefazolin. The team narrows the therapy, the patient recovers, and a carbapenem that would have been spent unnecessarily is preserved for the next patient who truly needs it.\n\nNothing about that de-escalation happened at the bedside alone. It happened because the laboratory identified the organism, tested it correctly, and reported the result in a way that made the narrow choice obvious. That is antimicrobial stewardship, and the microbiologist was in the middle of it. This article is about that role: not stewardship as a hospital committee, but stewardship as it is practiced from the bench.\n\n## What antimicrobial stewardship is\n\nAntimicrobial stewardship is the coordinated effort to use antimicrobials appropriately: the right drug, at the right dose, by the right route, for the right duration, so that patients are treated effectively while the emergence of resistance is slowed and existing antimicrobials are preserved.\n\nAntimicrobials are the only class of drugs that lose effectiveness the more they are used, which is what makes their conservation a shared responsibility rather than a private prescribing choice.\n\n## Why the laboratory sits at the center of stewardship\n\nA stewardship program can write policies, restrict drugs, and audit prescriptions, but every one of those actions depends on data the laboratory produces. The susceptibility report is the single most powerful stewardship intervention available, because it reaches the prescriber at the exact moment of decision and tells them what will work.\n\nA committee guideline is general advice; a susceptibility report is specific instruction about this patient's organism. The microbiologist therefore does not merely support stewardship from the outside. The laboratory is where the evidence for every stewardship decision is generated.\n\n## The laboratory's stewardship levers\n\nThere are six concrete ways the microbiology lab shapes prescribing. Each is a working tool, and most already have a dedicated article on this site.\n\n\u003Cfigure>\n\u003Cimg src=\"https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Flab-stewardship-levers-timeline.png\" alt=\"A timeline of the microbiology laboratory's stewardship levers across a single infection, moving from broad empirical therapy to narrow targeted therapy. Before results are available, the antibiogram guides the empirical guess and rapid diagnostics shorten the empirical window. When results are ready, selective and cascade reporting steer the drug choice while resistance detection, such as ESBL or AmpC confirmation, changes the drug. After the choice, the laboratory makes de-escalation safe. All six levers run on laboratory data, and the susceptibility report is the intervention itself.\" width=\"2800\" height=\"1840\" draggable=\"false\" contenteditable=\"false\">\u003Cfigcaption>The microbiology laboratory shapes prescribing at every stage of an infection. Before any result exists, the antibiogram guides empirical therapy and rapid diagnostics shorten the wait. Once results are ready, selective and cascade reporting steer the choice while resistance detection forks the prescribing road. After the choice, the laboratory makes de-escalation safe. Every one of these levers runs on laboratory data, which is why the susceptibility report, delivered to the prescriber at the moment of decision, is the most powerful stewardship intervention the bench controls.\u003C\u002Ffigcaption>\n\u003C\u002Ffigure>\n\n**1. The antibiogram: guiding the empirical guess.** Before any result is available, clinicians must treat empirically. The antibiogram, the laboratory's cumulative summary of local susceptibility data over a period, is what makes that guess evidence-based rather than habitual. If local *E. coli* is 30% resistant to ciprofloxacin, the antibiogram tells the whole institution to stop using ciprofloxacin empirically for those infections. This is stewardship at the population level, built entirely from laboratory data, and it is only as good as the AST behind it (see the [antimicrobial susceptibility testing hub](\u002Fantimicrobial-susceptibility-testing\u002F)).\n\n**2. Selective (restricted) reporting: steering the choice.** The laboratory does not have to report every drug it tests. By releasing only the narrowest effective agents and withholding broad-spectrum ones unless needed, the report itself nudges the prescriber toward the narrow choice. A clinician who never sees \"meropenem: susceptible\" on the report is far less likely to prescribe it. This is one of the most direct stewardship tools the bench controls, and it is covered in full in the selective reporting article.\n\n**3. Cascade reporting: releasing breadth only when earned.** A refinement of selective reporting. Broader-spectrum agents are reported only when the isolate is resistant to the narrow-spectrum first choices, so the clinician sees the broad option exactly when it becomes necessary and not before. The report unfolds in tiers that mirror good prescribing.\n\n**4. Resistance-mechanism detection as a prescribing decision.** When the laboratory confirms an ESBL, an AmpC, or a carbapenemase, it is not filing a fact, it is changing the drug. An [ESBL](\u002Fesbl-detection-and-confirmation\u002F) result moves therapy toward a carbapenem. An [AmpC](\u002Fampc-beta-lactamase-detection\u002F) result rules out third-generation cephalosporins and points to cefepime or a carbapenem. A [carbapenemase](\u002Fphenotypic-methods-for-the-detection-of-carbapenemases\u002F) result forces a move to last-line agents and triggers infection control. Every mechanism the bench detects is a fork in the prescribing road, which is why the detection spokes in this cluster are stewardship tools, not just diagnostic exercises.\n\n**5. Rapid diagnostics: shortening the empirical window.** The faster an organism is identified and its susceptibility known, the sooner broad empirical therapy can become narrow targeted therapy. Rapid identification methods and rapid AST compress the window during which a patient is on a best-guess broad-spectrum drug, which is the window stewardship most wants to shorten.\n\n**6. Supporting de-escalation and the D-test decision.** Once a susceptibility result is available, the laboratory's job is to make de-escalation safe. The [D-test](\u002Finducible-clindamycin-resistance-d-test-principle-procedure-and-interpretation\u002F), for example, exists precisely so a clinician does not de-escalate to clindamycin against an organism that will develop resistance mid-treatment. The bench does not just permit narrowing; it defines when narrowing is safe.\n\n## The prescribing-side complement: AWaRe\n\nThe laboratory shapes what is reported; the WHO AWaRe classification shapes how those drugs are valued. AWaRe sorts antibiotics into **Access, Watch, and Reserve tiers** so that the drugs worth protecting are used most sparingly.\n\nA stewardship-minded laboratory reports with AWaRe in mind, **favoring Access** agents in what it releases and **guarding Reserve** agents behind confirmed need. The two systems work together: the [AWaRe framework](\u002Fwho-aware-classification-antibiotics\u002F) sets the priorities, and laboratory reporting enacts them.\n\n## The microbiologist as a member of the stewardship team\n\nFormal stewardship programs are multidisciplinary, typically led by an infectious-disease physician and a clinical pharmacist. The clinical microbiologist is a core member, and brings what no one else on the team can: the diagnostic data, the resistance surveillance, the antibiogram, and the interpretive expertise to say what a result actually means for therapy. This is the role the current MD Microbiology curriculum trains for. Stewardship is not a topic microbiologists learn about. It is a responsibility they carry.\n\n## How to Remember\n\n**The one-line thesis of the whole article:** a susceptibility report is not a record of what the bug is resistant to. It is a prescribing instruction, and every choice the laboratory makes about what to test, what to report, and how to report it is a stewardship decision.\n\n**The six levers, grouped so they stick:** think of the laboratory acting across the timeline of a single infection. *Before* results exist, the **antibiogram** guides the empirical guess and **rapid diagnostics** shorten the wait. *When* results are ready, **selective** and **cascade reporting** steer the choice, and **resistance detection** forks the road. *After* the choice, the lab makes **de-escalation** safe. Before, during, after: two levers at each stage.\n\n**Why antibiotics are different, in one image:** every other drug in the pharmacy is a private transaction between one patient and one prescription. An antibiotic is a shared resource, using it today makes it work less well for everyone tomorrow. Stewardship is what turns a private prescribing decision back into a shared responsibility, and the laboratory holds the data that makes that possible.\n\n## Key exam facts in one table\n\n| Question | Answer |\n| --- | --- |\n| What is antimicrobial stewardship? | The coordinated effort to use antimicrobials appropriately (right drug, dose, route, duration) to improve outcomes and preserve effectiveness |\n| Why are antimicrobials treated as a shared resource? | They are the only drug class that loses effectiveness with increased use |\n| What is the single most powerful laboratory stewardship intervention? | The susceptibility report, because it reaches the prescriber at the moment of decision |\n| What is an antibiogram, and what does it guide? | A cumulative summary of local susceptibility data; it guides empirical therapy |\n| What is selective (restricted) reporting? | Releasing only the narrowest effective agents to steer prescribing away from broad-spectrum drugs |\n| How does cascade reporting differ? | Broader agents are reported only when the isolate resists the narrow first-choice drugs |\n| How is detecting an ESBL or AmpC a stewardship act? | The result directly changes the drug chosen (e.g., ESBL to a carbapenem; AmpC to cefepime or a carbapenem) |\n| What does the WHO AWaRe classification contribute? | It tiers antibiotics (Access, Watch, Reserve) so protected drugs are used most sparingly |\n| Who leads a stewardship program, and what is the microbiologist's role? | Usually an ID physician and clinical pharmacist; the microbiologist provides diagnostic data, surveillance, and interpretive expertise |\n| What does de-escalation mean? | Narrowing broad empirical therapy to a targeted agent once susceptibility is known |\n\n## Where Students Get Confused\n\n**\"Stewardship is an administrative program, not a lab activity.\"** The program is administrative; the evidence for every decision it makes is generated in the laboratory. The bench is not outside stewardship, it is the source of the data stewardship runs on.\n\n**\"The lab reports everything it tests.\"** No. Selective and cascade reporting mean the laboratory deliberately withholds some results to steer prescribing. What is left off the report is a stewardship choice as deliberate as what is put on it.\n\n**\"Detecting a resistance mechanism is just diagnosis.\"** It is also a prescribing decision. Confirming an ESBL, AmpC, or carbapenemase changes the drug the patient receives, which is stewardship in action.\n\n**\"De-escalation means giving fewer antibiotics.\"** It means giving the *right, narrower* antibiotic once the organism is known, not simply giving less. The goal is targeted therapy, not reduced therapy.\n\n**\"Stewardship is only about saving money.\"** Cost savings are a byproduct. The primary goals are better patient outcomes and preserving antimicrobial effectiveness for the future.\n\n### References\n\n1. Barlam TF, Cosgrove SE, Abbo LM, et al. Implementing an Antibiotic Stewardship Program: Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. *Clin Infect Dis.* 2016;62(10):e51-e77. doi:10.1093\u002Fcid\u002Fciw118\n2. World Health Organization. *WHO AWaRe (Access, Watch, Reserve) classification of antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use.* Geneva: WHO; current edition.\n3. Dyar OJ, Huttner B, Schouten J, Pulcini C. What is antimicrobial stewardship? *Clin Microbiol Infect.* 2017;23(11):793-798. doi:10.1016\u002Fj.cmi.2017.08.026\n4. Morency-Potvin P, Schwartz DN, Weinstein RA. Antimicrobial Stewardship: How the Microbiology Laboratory Can Right the Ship. *Clin Microbiol Rev.* 2016;30(1):381-407. doi:10.1128\u002FCMR.00066-16\n5. Tille PM. *Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology.* 15th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2022.",[],[51],"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing",[53,78,105,130,137,145,173,179],{"slug":51,"title":54,"description":55,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":56,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":57,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":58,"tags":77},"Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST): Methods, Interpretation, and How to Choose","How antimicrobial susceptibility testing works, when to use disk diffusion vs. dilution vs. gradient vs. automated methods, how CLSI and EUCAST breakpoints turn a measurement into S\u002FI\u002FR, and how to read a result the way a clinician will use it.","Nisha Rijal","2026-08-01",[59,62,65,68,71,74],{"question":60,"answer":61},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between antimicrobial susceptibility testing and organism identification?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Identification determines which organism is causing the infection. Susceptibility testing determines which antibiotics will actually work against that specific isolate. Identification narrows the choices; AST decides among them, because resistance is acquired and varies from isolate to isolate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":63,"answer":64},"\u003Cp>Which AST method is the gold standard?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Broth microdilution, a dilution method, is the reference standard because it yields an exact MIC under tightly controlled conditions. Other methods are validated against it.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":66,"answer":67},"\u003Cp>When is an MIC needed instead of a simple Susceptible\u002FResistant result?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>When dosing must clear a specific threshold at a hard-to-reach site, such as endocarditis, osteomyelitis, meningitis, or bloodstream infection in an immunocompromised patient. Routine infections usually need only the S\u002FI\u002FR category.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":69,"answer":70},"\u003Cp>Why do CLSI and EUCAST sometimes give different results for the same organism?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>They are independent committees that set breakpoints from the same kinds of evidence but can reach different cutoffs, quality-control ranges, and category definitions. A laboratory must apply one system consistently, and a result is only interpretable if you know which one was used.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":72,"answer":73},"\u003Cp>Does \"Intermediate\" mean the antibiotic will not work?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Not necessarily. Intermediate is a defined pharmacological category that often means the drug may still be effective at maximum dosing or at sites where it concentrates, such as the urinary tract. It reflects real pharmacology, not laboratory uncertainty.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":75,"answer":76},"\u003Cp>Why do some resistance mechanisms need special tests beyond routine susceptibility testing?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because certain clinically critical mechanisms can read misleadingly susceptible on a standard panel. MRSA is detected with a cefoxitin surrogate, inducible clindamycin resistance with the D-test, and ESBLs, AmpC, and carbapenemases with specific phenotypic tests, so these are confirmed separately rather than trusted to the routine read.\u003C\u002Fp>",[51],{"slug":79,"title":80,"description":81,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":56,"createdDate":57,"lastUpdatedDate":57,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":82,"tags":104},"esbl-detection-and-confirmation","ESBL Detection: Screening, the Combined-Disk Confirmatory Test, and the AmpC Trap","How the lab detects an extended-spectrum beta-lactamase: the screening cutoffs, the CLSI combined-disk confirmatory test and its ≥5 mm rule, the control strains, and why a co-produced AmpC can hide an ESBL from a routine plate.",[83,86,89,92,95,98,101],{"question":84,"answer":85},"\u003Cp>What is the confirmatory test for an ESBL?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The combined-disk test. Cefotaxime and ceftazidime are each tested alone and in combination with clavulanic acid. A zone diameter increase of 5 mm or more with clavulanate, for either cephalosporin, confirms ESBL production.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":87,"answer":88},"\u003Cp>Why is clavulanic acid used to detect ESBLs?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Clavulanic acid inhibits the ESBL enzyme. When it is added to a cephalosporin, the antibiotic's activity is restored and its inhibition zone enlarges. That enlargement is the visible proof that an ESBL was responsible for the resistance.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":90,"answer":91},"\u003Cp>Why can an ESBL-producing organism test negative on the confirmatory test?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>If the isolate also produces an AmpC enzyme, clavulanic acid does not inhibit the AmpC, so the cephalosporin keeps being destroyed and the zone does not enlarge. The ESBL is present but masked. Resistance to cefoxitin is a clue that AmpC may be involved.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":93,"answer":94},"\u003Cp>What can ESBLs hydrolyze, and what can they not?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>ESBLs hydrolyze oxyimino-cephalosporins (such as cefotaxime, ceftazidime, and ceftriaxone) and aztreonam. They cannot effectively hydrolyze cephamycins (such as cefoxitin) or carbapenems.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":96,"answer":97},"\u003Cp>Why does an ESBL-producing infection often fail more than one antibiotic class?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>ESBL genes are usually plasmid-mediated, and the same plasmid frequently carries resistance genes for other classes such as aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolones. A single organism can therefore defeat both the first-choice drug and the expected backup.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":99,"answer":100},"\u003Cp>How does ESBL resistance spread between bacteria?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because ESBL genes sit on plasmids, they transfer readily between bacteria of the same species and across genera, for example from \u003Cem>E. coli\u003C\u002Fem> to \u003Cem>Klebsiella\u003C\u002Fem> or \u003Cem>Pseudomonas\u003C\u002Fem>.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":102,"answer":103},"\u003Cp>Which control strains are used for the ESBL confirmatory test?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>\u003Cem>Klebsiella pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem> ATCC 700603 is the positive control and \u003Cem>Escherichia coli\u003C\u002Fem> ATCC 25922 is the negative control.\u003C\u002Fp>",[51],{"slug":106,"title":107,"description":108,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":56,"createdDate":109,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":110,"tags":129},"ampc-beta-lactamase-detection","AmpC Beta-Lactamase Detection: Cefoxitin Screen, Inhibitor Confirmation, and Telling It Apart from an ESBL","How the lab detects an AmpC beta-lactamase: the cefoxitin screen, the cloxacillin and boronic acid confirmatory tests, chromosomal versus plasmid-mediated AmpC, and the inhibitor logic that separates AmpC from an ESBL.","2026-08-02",[111,114,117,120,123,126],{"question":112,"answer":113},"\u003Cp>How is an AmpC beta-lactamase detected in the lab?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Detection begins with a cefoxitin screen: a cefoxitin zone under 18 mm is suspicious. Confirmation uses an AmpC inhibitor, either a cefoxitin-cloxacillin double-disk test (≥4 mm zone increase with cloxacillin) or a boronic acid disk test (≥5 mm increase with boronic acid). The AmpC disk test using Tris-EDTA is an alternative.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":115,"answer":116},"\u003Cp>How do you tell an AmpC apart from an ESBL?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>By which inhibitor restores the cephalosporin. AmpC is inhibited by boronic acid and cloxacillin but not by clavulanic acid; an ESBL is the reverse. AmpC also hydrolyzes cefoxitin, whereas an ESBL spares it, so cefoxitin resistance points toward AmpC.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":118,"answer":119},"\u003Cp>Why is clavulanic acid not useful for detecting AmpC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Clavulanic acid inhibits the serine ESBLs but does not inhibit AmpC enzymes. That is why the standard ESBL confirmatory test, which relies on clavulanate synergy, cannot detect an AmpC and can even be masked by one.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":121,"answer":122},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between chromosomal and plasmid-mediated AmpC?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Chromosomal AmpC is native to organisms such as \u003Cem>Enterobacter\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Citrobacter\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Serratia\u003C\u002Fem>, where it is often inducible. Plasmid-mediated AmpC is acquired and appears in species that normally lack a chromosomal ampC, such as \u003Cem>E. coli\u003C\u002Fem>, \u003Cem>Klebsiella pneumoniae\u003C\u002Fem>, and \u003Cem>Proteus mirabilis\u003C\u002Fem>, where its presence signals a transferable enzyme.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":124,"answer":125},"\u003Cp>Why can an AmpC producer fail treatment despite a susceptible cephalosporin result?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Many AmpC enzymes are inducible. Baseline production is low, so the isolate can appear susceptible, but exposure to a beta-lactam increases enzyme production and unmasks resistance during therapy. Cefepime or a carbapenem is preferred for confirmed AmpC producers.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":127,"answer":128},"\u003Cp>Can an isolate produce both AmpC and ESBL?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Yes. When both are present, the AmpC masks the ESBL because clavulanic acid cannot restore the cephalosporin while the AmpC continues to hydrolyze it. Testing on cloxacillin-containing media or adding boronic acid neutralizes the AmpC and reveals the hidden ESBL.\u003C\u002Fp>",[51],{"slug":131,"title":132,"description":132,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":56,"createdDate":133,"lastUpdatedDate":134,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":135,"tags":136},"phenotypic-methods-for-the-detection-of-carbapenemases","Phenotypic Methods for the Detection of Carbapenemases","2021-05-10","2026-07-05",[],[51],{"slug":138,"title":139,"description":140,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":141,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":142,"tags":143},"inducible-clindamycin-resistance-d-test-principle-procedure-and-interpretation","D-Test for Inducible Clindamycin Resistance: Why \"Clindamycin-Susceptible\" Isn't Always True","Erythromycin-resistant, clindamycin-susceptible on a routine report, but is it really? The D-test catches inducible resistance that standard susceptibility testing misses, and that has caused documented clindamycin treatment failures.","2013-08-02",[],[51,144],"antimicrobials-moa-amr",{"slug":146,"title":147,"description":147,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":148,"lastUpdatedDate":109,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":149,"faq":150,"tags":172},"who-aware-classification-antibiotics","WHO AWaRe Classification of Antibiotics","2021-04-30","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fwho-aware-classification-of-antibiotics.png",[151,154,157,160,163,166,169],{"question":152,"answer":153},"\u003Cp>What is the WHO AWaRe classification of antibiotics?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a WHO tool that sorts antibiotics into three groups, Access, Watch, and Reserve, based on their impact on antimicrobial resistance and the need to monitor their use. Developed in 2017 and updated every two years, it supports antibiotic stewardship by guiding appropriate use and protecting last-line drugs.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":155,"answer":156},"\u003Cp>What do Access, Watch, and Reserve mean?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Access drugs are narrow-spectrum, lower-resistance-risk antibiotics for common infections and should be widely available. Watch drugs have higher resistance potential, include critically important classes, and are key stewardship targets. Reserve drugs are last-resort antibiotics kept for confirmed or suspected multidrug-resistant infections.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":158,"answer":159},"\u003Cp>Are Watch and Reserve antibiotics stronger than Access antibiotics?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>No. WHO states clearly that Access antibiotics remain the most effective drugs for many infections. The groups reflect a drug's impact on resistance and the need for surveillance, not its clinical strength. Choosing an Access drug that fits the infection is good practice, not a weaker option.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":161,"answer":162},"\u003Cp>What is the AWaRe Access target?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The original WHO target (2019-2023) was that at least 60% of a country's total antibiotic consumption should be Access-group antibiotics. In 2024, UN Member States committed to a stronger target: 70% of human antibiotic use should be Access by 2030. A high Access share indicates healthy prescribing.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":164,"answer":165},"\u003Cp>How is the AWaRe classification used in practice?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is used to monitor antibiotic consumption against the Access target, to set hospital formularies and antibiotic policies, to guide empirical therapy through the WHO AWaRe antibiotic book (which gives choice, dose, and duration for common infections), and to track and restrict Reserve-group use so last-line drugs are preserved.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":167,"answer":168},"\u003Cp>Why are most cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones in the Watch group?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Because these broad-spectrum, critically important classes have a high potential to drive resistance when overused. Placing them in Watch flags them as key targets for stewardship and monitoring, even though they are clinically important and widely prescribed.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":170,"answer":171},"\u003Cp>How often is the AWaRe classification updated?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Every two years, alongside the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, so the number of classified antibiotics and some group assignments change with each revision. For the complete current list, refer to the WHO AWaRe classification directly.\u003C\u002Fp>",[144],{"slug":174,"title":175,"description":175,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":176,"lastUpdatedDate":134,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":177,"tags":178},"basic-sets-drugs-used-routine-antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing-ast","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST): Guidelines and Best Practices","2013-08-27",[],[51],{"slug":180,"title":181,"description":182,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":183,"lastUpdatedDate":184,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":185,"tags":186},"store-commercial-antimicrobial-discs","Storing Antimicrobial Discs: Temperatures, Desiccant, and Why Potency Matters","A disc that has lost potency reads as falsely resistant, denying a working drug. How to store antimicrobial discs: cold chain, freezing β-lactams, and desiccant.","2013-08-26","2026-07-29",[],[51,187],"laboratory-storage-and-preservation",{"enabled":189,"threads":190,"total":191},true,[],0,[193,199,206,213,219,224,230,235,241,244,250],{"slug":194,"name":43,"description":195,"image":196,"body":197,"postCount":198},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":200,"name":201,"description":202,"image":203,"body":204,"postCount":205},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":207,"name":208,"description":209,"image":210,"body":211,"postCount":212},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":214,"name":215,"description":209,"image":216,"body":217,"postCount":218},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":220,"name":221,"description":209,"image":42,"body":222,"postCount":223},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":225,"name":226,"description":227,"image":42,"body":228,"postCount":229},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":231,"name":232,"description":233,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":234},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":236,"name":237,"description":209,"image":238,"body":239,"postCount":240},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":242,"name":243,"description":233,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":234},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":245,"name":56,"description":246,"image":247,"body":248,"postCount":249},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":251,"name":252,"description":253,"image":254,"body":255,"postCount":234},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[257,264,270,275,280,285,289,293,297,302,306,310,313,318,323,327,331,335,340,345,349,353,357,362,366,370,374,378,383,388,392,396,400,404,408,412,416,420,424,428,432,436,440,444,448,452,456,459,464,468,472,476,480,484,488,492,496,500,504,508,512,516,520,524,528,532,536,540,543,547],{"slug":258,"name":259,"description":260,"image":261,"body":262,"postCount":263},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":265,"name":266,"description":267,"image":42,"body":268,"postCount":269},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":271,"name":272,"description":273,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":276,"name":277,"description":278,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":281,"name":282,"description":283,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":286,"name":287,"description":288,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":290,"name":291,"description":292,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":269},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":303,"name":304,"description":305,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":51,"name":307,"description":308,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":144,"name":311,"description":312,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":314,"name":315,"description":316,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":317},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":319,"name":320,"description":321,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":322},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":324,"name":325,"description":326,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":42,"image":42,"body":330,"postCount":223},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":332,"name":333,"description":42,"image":42,"body":334,"postCount":317},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":339,"postCount":301},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":341,"name":342,"description":343,"image":42,"body":344,"postCount":223},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":346,"name":347,"description":348,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":350,"name":351,"description":352,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":354,"name":355,"description":356,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":358,"name":359,"description":360,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":361},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":363,"name":364,"description":365,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":367,"name":368,"description":369,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":375,"name":376,"description":377,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":379,"name":380,"description":381,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":382},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":384,"name":385,"description":386,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":393,"name":394,"description":395,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":397,"name":398,"description":399,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":229},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":401,"name":402,"description":403,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":309},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":405,"name":406,"description":407,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":409,"name":410,"description":411,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":413,"name":414,"description":415,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":317},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":417,"name":418,"description":419,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":382},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":421,"name":422,"description":423,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":425,"name":426,"description":427,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":429,"name":430,"description":431,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":433,"name":434,"description":435,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":229},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":437,"name":438,"description":439,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":441,"name":442,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":445,"name":446,"description":447,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":449,"name":450,"description":451,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":269},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":453,"name":454,"description":455,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":263},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":187,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":463,"postCount":223},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":465,"name":466,"description":467,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":469,"name":470,"description":471,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":473,"name":474,"description":475,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":477,"name":478,"description":479,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":234},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":481,"name":482,"description":483,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":317},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":485,"name":486,"description":487,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":489,"name":490,"description":491,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":274},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":493,"name":494,"description":495,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":497,"name":498,"description":499,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":503,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":284},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":505,"name":506,"description":507,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":509,"name":510,"description":511,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":515,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":517,"name":518,"description":519,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":387},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":521,"name":522,"description":523,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":525,"name":526,"description":527,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":529,"name":530,"description":531,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":223},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":533,"name":534,"description":535,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":537,"name":538,"description":539,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":541,"name":542,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":234},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":544,"name":545,"description":546,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":279},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":548,"name":549,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":443},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]