[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fyzD6GNYLXQ1NGk5lJntA_C14T4G4rlZp87cQ3cJTfrE":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":108,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":173},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Abbreviations","abbreviations","\u002Fabbreviations\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Utilization Tests for Bacterial Identification","utilization-tests","\u002Futilization-tests\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":44,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"body":47,"faq":48,"commentsClosed":45,"tags":49,"related":51,"comments":104},"antigen-presenting-cells","Antigen-Presenting Cells: Professional and Non-Professional APCs","\u003Cp>What antigen-presenting cells are, the three professional APCs (dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells), how they differ from non-professional APCs, and what makes a cell \"professional.\" For micro and health-science students.\u003C\u002Fp>",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2026-08-08",false,"immunology","A T cell is powerful but nearly blind. It cannot see a whole pathogen, and it cannot respond to a free-floating protein. It can only act when another cell catches the antigen, breaks it into pieces, and holds one piece up on a special display molecule for the T cell to inspect. The cells that do this job are the antigen-presenting cells.\n\nSome are specialists, built for this task and able to switch on a naive T cell from scratch. Others do it only part-time, when the situation demands. Understanding which cells present antigen, and what separates the specialists from the part-timers, explains how the adaptive immune response gets started in the first place.\n\n## What is an antigen-presenting cell?\n\nAn antigen-presenting cell (APC) is any cell that displays a fragment of antigen on an MHC molecule so that a T cell can recognize it. Because T cells cannot recognize free antigen, this display step is the gateway to the entire adaptive immune response. No presentation, no T-cell response.\n\nThere is a broad sense and a narrow sense of the term, and keeping them apart avoids most confusion.\n\nIn the broad sense, almost every cell in the body is an antigen-presenting cell, because nearly all nucleated cells carry MHC class I and constantly display fragments of their own internal proteins for inspection by CD8 T cells. This is how a virus-infected cell reveals itself.\n\n![Mhc presentation type i and ii](\u002Fblogs\u002FMHC-Presentation-type-I-and-II.png?width=807&height=625)Figure: Antigen-presenting cell (APC) presenting antigen to CD8, CD4 and NK Cells.\n\nIn the narrow sense, and the one usually meant by \"APC,\" an antigen-presenting cell is a cell that takes up antigen from outside, processes it, and displays it on MHC class II to CD4 helper T cells. Only certain cells can do this. When immunologists say \"APC,\" they almost always mean this narrower group.\n\nHow antigens are processed and loaded onto MHC molecules is covered in a separate article on MHC molecules. This article focuses on the cells themselves.\n\n## Professional vs non-professional APCs\n\nThe cells that present on MHC class II fall into two groups, and the dividing line is simple and worth memorizing.\n\nProfessional APCs express MHC class II all the time (constitutively) and also carry the co-stimulatory molecules needed to fully activate a T cell. Because they have both signals ready, they can switch on a naive T cell that has never seen its antigen before. There are three professional APCs: dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells.\n\nNon-professional APCs (also called amateur or atypical APCs) do not normally express MHC class II. They can be induced to express it temporarily, usually by inflammatory signals such as the cytokine interferon-gamma, and can then present antigen in a limited way. They generally cannot prime a naive T cell on their own. Examples include fibroblasts, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and glial cells.\n\nThe single distinguishing question is: does the cell express MHC class II all the time and provide co-stimulation? If yes, it is professional. If it only presents when inflamed, and cannot fully activate a naive T cell, it is non-professional.\n\n## The three professional APCs\n\n### Dendritic cells\n\nDendritic cells are the most important professional APCs and the most effective at activating naive T cells. They sit in tissues that contact the outside world, such as skin and mucosa, where they capture antigen. They then migrate to the lymph nodes and present it to T cells. Because they are the best at starting a response from scratch, they are the main bridge between innate and adaptive immunity. Their detailed role is introduced in the article on cells of the immune system.\n\n### Macrophages\n\nMacrophages are phagocytes first and presenters second. They engulf and destroy pathogens, then display fragments on MHC class II to helper T cells. A helper T cell that recognizes the fragment can, in turn, activate the macrophage further, making it a better killer. So the macrophage and the helper T cell strengthen each other.\n\n### B cells\n\nB cells present antigen in a targeted way. Using their B-cell receptor, they capture the specific antigen they recognize, internalize it, and present it on MHC class II to a helper T cell. This is the step that lets a helper T cell provide help back to the B cell, which the B cell needs to make high-quality antibody. This two-way exchange is covered in the article on humoral immunity.\n\n### A useful way to see the three\n\nEach professional APC captures antigen differently, and this shapes its role:\n\nDendritic cells sample broadly from the environment and are built to alert naive T cells. Macrophages capture what they phagocytose and use presentation to get help killing it. B cells capture one specific antigen through their receptor and use presentation to get help making antibody against it.\n\nSame display molecule (MHC class II), three different reasons to use it.\n\n### Cross-presentation: the exception worth knowing\n\nThere is one important exception to the tidy rule that MHC class I shows inside antigens and MHC class II shows outside antigens. Some dendritic cells can take antigen captured from outside the cell and present it on MHC class I to CD8 T cells. This is called cross-presentation.\n\nIt matters because it is how the immune system activates killer (CD8) T cells against a virus that does not directly infect the dendritic cell itself. Without cross-presentation, a killer T-cell response could only be triggered by a cell the virus had actually infected. Cross-presentation lets a dendritic cell raise the alarm about an infection happening in other cells. This is largely a specialty of dendritic cells.\n\n## How to remember\n\n**APC's job in one line: catch, chop, and show.** The APC catches the antigen, chops it into fragments, and shows a fragment on an MHC molecule to a T cell.\n\n**The three professionals: \"DMB.\"** Dendritic cells, Macrophages, B cells. Dendritic cells are the leaders (best at priming naive T cells).\n\n**Professional = MHC II all the time + co-stimulation.** The dividing line is constitutive MHC class II plus the ability to fully activate a naive T cell. Non-professional cells only present when inflamed and cannot prime naive T cells.\n\n**Why each professional presents:** Dendritic cell to alert, macrophage to get help killing, B cell to get help making antibody. Same tool, three motives.\n\n**Cross-presentation = dendritic cells breaking the rule.** They show outside antigen on MHC class I to activate killer T cells against infections happening elsewhere.\n\n## Key exam facts in one table\n\n| Fact | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| APC (narrow sense) | Presents outside antigen on MHC class II to CD4 T cells |\n| Three professional APCs | Dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells |\n| Most effective APC | Dendritic cell (best at priming naive T cells) |\n| Professional means | Constitutive MHC class II + co-stimulation |\n| Non-professional APCs | Fibroblasts, epithelial, endothelial, glial cells |\n| Non-professional trigger | Express MHC II only when induced (e.g. IFN-gamma) |\n| Can prime naive T cells | Professional APCs only |\n| Macrophage presentation | Get help to kill what it engulfed |\n| B cell presentation | Get help to make antibody |\n| Cross-presentation | Outside antigen shown on MHC class I to CD8 T cells |\n| Cross-presentation done by | Mainly dendritic cells |\n\n## Where students get confused\n\n**\"All nucleated cells are APCs, so the term does not mean much.\"** It is true that nearly all cells present on MHC class I, but the term \"APC\" almost always means the narrower group that presents on MHC class II to helper T cells. When someone says \"APC,\" assume they mean dendritic cells, macrophages, or B cells unless told otherwise.\n\n**\"There are three APCs total.\"** No, there are three professional APCs. Many other cells (fibroblasts, epithelial cells) can present as non-professional APCs when induced. And in the broadest sense, all nucleated cells present on MHC class I.\n\n**\"Any APC can activate a naive T cell.\"** No. Only professional APCs can prime a naive T cell, because they provide both antigen on MHC class II and the co-stimulatory second signal. Non-professional APCs lack full co-stimulation and cannot do this.\n\n**\"Cross-presentation means MHC class II showing inside antigen.\"** No, it is the reverse. Cross-presentation is outside (exogenous) antigen being shown on MHC class I to CD8 T cells. It is the exception to the usual rule, and mainly a dendritic cell ability.\n\n**\"B cells present random antigens like macrophages do.\"** No. A B cell presents the specific antigen its receptor captured, not just anything it engulfs. This specificity is exactly why B-cell presentation leads to help for making antibody against that antigen.\n\n### References\n\n1. Abbas AK, Lichtman AH, Pillai S. *Cellular and Molecular Immunology*. 10th ed. Elsevier; 2022.\n2. Punt J, Stranford SA, Jones PP, Owen JA. *Kuby Immunology*. 8th ed. W.H. Freeman; 2019.\n3. Kambayashi T, Laufer TM. Atypical MHC class II-expressing antigen-presenting cells: can anything replace a dendritic cell? *Nat Rev Immunol*. 2014;14(11):719–730. \u003Chttps:\u002F\u002Fdoi.org\u002F10.1038\u002Fnri3754>",[],[50],"adaptive-immunity",[52,79],{"slug":53,"title":54,"description":55,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":56,"lastUpdatedDate":57,"draft":45,"category":58,"image":42,"faq":59,"tags":78},"difference-between-b-cells-t-cells","Difference Between B Cells and T Cells: Why One Sees Antigen Directly and the Other Cannot","\u003Cp>B cells vs T cells compared point by point: where they mature, how each recognizes antigen, their receptors, CD markers, and blood proportions. The one difference that explains all the others, plus the exam points students most often confuse.\u003C\u002Fp>","2019-04-08","2026-08-09","difference-between",[60,63,66,69,72,75],{"question":61,"answer":62},"\u003Cp>What is the main difference between B cells and T cells?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The core difference is how they recognize antigen. A B cell binds free, unprocessed antigen directly, using its membrane-bound antibody. A T cell cannot bind free antigen at all; it only recognizes antigen after it has been processed into a peptide and displayed on an MHC molecule on another cell. Nearly every other difference follows from this one.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":64,"answer":65},"\u003Cp>Where do B cells and T cells mature?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both are made in the bone marrow, but they mature in different places. B cells mature in the bone marrow itself. T cells leave the bone marrow and travel to the thymus to mature, which is where the T in T cell comes from.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":67,"answer":68},"\u003Cp>What do B cells and T cells do?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>B cells drive humoral immunity: their plasma cell offspring produce antibodies. T cells drive cell-mediated immunity: cytotoxic (CD8) T cells kill infected or cancerous cells directly, while helper (CD4) T cells coordinate the immune response, including helping B cells make antibody.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":70,"answer":71},"\u003Cp>Why do T cells need MHC but B cells do not?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A B cell receptor is essentially an antibody, which can grip a whole antigen on its own. A T cell receptor is built differently and can only engage a short peptide held out on an MHC molecule. So T cells depend on other cells to process and present antigen, while B cells can recognize it directly.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":73,"answer":74},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between CD4 and CD8 T cells?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>CD4 marks helper T cells, which coordinate the immune response and pair with MHC class II. CD8 marks cytotoxic (killer) T cells, which destroy infected cells and pair with MHC class I. A simple memory aid is 4 times 2 equals 8: CD4 with class II, CD8 with class I.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":76,"answer":77},"\u003Cp>Which are more numerous in the blood, B cells or T cells?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>T cells are far more numerous, making up about 70 to 80 percent of the lymphocytes in peripheral blood. B cells make up only about 10 to 15 percent. The remainder includes natural killer cells.\u003C\u002Fp>",[50],{"slug":80,"title":81,"description":82,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":57,"draft":45,"category":46,"image":42,"faq":83,"tags":102},"natural-killer-cells","Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Missing-Self Recognition and Function","\u003Cp>What natural killer (NK) cells are, how the missing-self mechanism lets them catch virus-infected and tumor cells that hide from T cells, and how they bridge innate and adaptive immunity. For micro and health-science students.\u003C\u002Fp>",[84,87,90,93,96,99],{"question":85,"answer":86},"\u003Cp>What is a natural killer cell?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A natural killer (NK) cell is a lymphocyte that kills virus-infected and tumor cells without prior exposure or training. It is mainly part of the innate immune system, though it also links to the adaptive system.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":88,"answer":89},"\u003Cp>What is missing-self recognition?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is how NK cells decide what to kill. Healthy cells display MHC class I, which NK cells read as a \"do not kill\" signal. When a cell loses MHC class I, that signal disappears and the NK cell attacks. NK cells kill the cell that has stopped showing the healthy self signal.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":91,"answer":92},"\u003Cp>Why can NK cells kill cells that cytotoxic T cells cannot?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Some viruses and tumors hide from cytotoxic T cells by removing MHC class I, since T cells need MHC class I to see antigen. But removing MHC class I is exactly what triggers NK cells. So NK cells catch the cells that escape T cells.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":94,"answer":95},"\u003Cp>How do NK cells kill their targets?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly with perforin and granzymes, the same tools cytotoxic T cells use. Perforin makes pores in the target, granzymes enter and trigger apoptosis. NK cells also kill antibody-coated cells through ADCC and release interferon-gamma.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":97,"answer":98},"\u003Cp>Are NK cells part of innate or adaptive immunity?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly innate, because they act immediately without training. But they also bridge to the adaptive system through ADCC, where antibodies direct their killing, and through the cytokines they release.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":100,"answer":101},"\u003Cp>What is the difference between an NK cell and a cytotoxic T cell?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Both use perforin and granzyme to kill infected and tumor cells, but they choose targets oppositely. A cytotoxic T cell needs to see a specific antigen on MHC class I. An NK cell attacks when MHC class I is missing. They complement each other.\u003C\u002Fp>",[50,103],"innate-immunity",{"enabled":105,"threads":106,"total":107},true,[],0,[109,115,122,129,135,140,146,151,157,160,167],{"slug":110,"name":43,"description":111,"image":112,"body":113,"postCount":114},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",468,{"slug":116,"name":117,"description":118,"image":119,"body":120,"postCount":121},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",78,{"slug":123,"name":124,"description":125,"image":126,"body":127,"postCount":128},"sushmita-baniya","Sushmita Baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":130,"name":131,"description":125,"image":132,"body":133,"postCount":134},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":136,"name":137,"description":125,"image":42,"body":138,"postCount":139},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":141,"name":142,"description":143,"image":42,"body":144,"postCount":145},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":147,"name":148,"description":149,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":150},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":152,"name":153,"description":125,"image":154,"body":155,"postCount":156},"srijana-khanal","Srijana Khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",17,{"slug":158,"name":159,"description":149,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":150},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":161,"name":162,"description":163,"image":164,"body":165,"postCount":166},"nisha-rijal","Nisha Rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":168,"name":169,"description":170,"image":171,"body":172,"postCount":150},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[174,181,187,192,197,202,206,210,214,219,223,228,232,237,242,246,250,254,259,264,268,272,276,281,285,289,293,297,302,307,311,315,319,323,327,331,335,339,343,347,351,355,359,363,367,370,374,378,383,387,391,395,399,403,407,411,415,419,423,427,431,434,438,442,446,450,454,458,461,465],{"slug":175,"name":176,"description":177,"image":178,"body":179,"postCount":180},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":182,"name":183,"description":184,"image":42,"body":185,"postCount":186},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":188,"name":189,"description":190,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":191},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":193,"name":194,"description":195,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":198,"name":199,"description":200,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":201},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":203,"name":204,"description":205,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":191},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":207,"name":208,"description":209,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":191},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":211,"name":212,"description":213,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":186},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":215,"name":216,"description":217,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":220,"name":221,"description":222,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":180},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":224,"name":225,"description":226,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":229,"name":230,"description":231,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":201},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":233,"name":234,"description":235,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":238,"name":239,"description":240,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":241},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":243,"name":244,"description":245,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":247,"name":248,"description":42,"image":42,"body":249,"postCount":139},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":251,"name":252,"description":42,"image":42,"body":253,"postCount":236},"chromatography","Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":255,"name":256,"description":257,"image":42,"body":258,"postCount":218},"electrophoresis","Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":260,"name":261,"description":262,"image":42,"body":263,"postCount":139},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":265,"name":266,"description":267,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":269,"name":270,"description":271,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":273,"name":274,"description":275,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":277,"name":278,"description":279,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":280},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":284,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":286,"name":287,"description":288,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":290,"name":291,"description":292,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":294,"name":295,"description":296,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":201},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":298,"name":299,"description":300,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":303,"name":304,"description":305,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":308,"name":309,"description":310,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":201},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":316,"name":317,"description":318,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":145},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":320,"name":321,"description":322,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":227},"bacterial-culture-media","Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",{"slug":324,"name":325,"description":326,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":328,"name":329,"description":330,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":332,"name":333,"description":334,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":336,"name":337,"description":338,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":301},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":340,"name":341,"description":342,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":344,"name":345,"description":346,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":348,"name":349,"description":350,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":352,"name":353,"description":354,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":145},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":356,"name":357,"description":358,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":360,"name":361,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":362},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":364,"name":365,"description":366,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":50,"name":368,"description":369,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":186},"Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":371,"name":372,"description":373,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":180},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":375,"name":376,"description":377,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":379,"name":380,"description":381,"image":42,"body":382,"postCount":139},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":384,"name":385,"description":386,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":201},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":388,"name":389,"description":390,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":392,"name":393,"description":394,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":396,"name":397,"description":398,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":150},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":400,"name":401,"description":402,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":236},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":404,"name":405,"description":406,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":134},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":408,"name":409,"description":410,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":191},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":412,"name":413,"description":414,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":416,"name":417,"description":418,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":201},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":362},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":103,"name":432,"description":433,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":435,"name":436,"description":437,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":306},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":439,"name":440,"description":441,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":443,"name":444,"description":445,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":447,"name":448,"description":449,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":139},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":451,"name":452,"description":453,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":218},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":455,"name":456,"description":457,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":459,"name":460,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":150},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":462,"name":463,"description":464,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":196},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":466,"name":467,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":362},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells"]