[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"$fxLN3MUwXCdr5RPjwZYIDpOj8CHyjOmngWTgoKXPtZbg":3,"$fNZ-zf8Q49QDoIkLE8KA6KW5qR3NSh-XZ6NTjzlkmqfc":36,"$f3Ft0rKFJHppdzE-vuveecxx1BUcg9iOlMLtyzf_MJDg":225,"$fucxFBm2ZjZfGSdmdRaSNGBI_F0jJme4f0GTvzUhQfL8":287},[4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32],{"title":5,"slug":6,"path":7},"About Microbeonline.com","about-microbeonline-com","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002F",{"title":9,"slug":10,"path":11},"About Me","about-me","\u002Fabout-microbeonline-com\u002Fabout-me\u002F",{"title":13,"slug":14,"path":15},"Advertise with Us","advertise-us","\u002Fadvertise-us\u002F",{"title":17,"slug":18,"path":19},"Privacy Policy","privacy-policy","\u002Fprivacy-policy\u002F",{"title":21,"slug":22,"path":23},"Authors","authors","\u002Fauthors\u002F",{"title":25,"slug":26,"path":27},"Microbes","microbes","\u002Fmicrobes\u002F",{"title":29,"slug":30,"path":31},"Books","recommended-books","\u002Frecommended-books\u002F",{"title":33,"slug":34,"path":35},"Tags","tags","\u002Ftags\u002F",{"type":37,"data":38},"blog",{"slug":39,"title":40,"description":41,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":44,"lastUpdatedDate":45,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"body":48,"faq":49,"commentsClosed":46,"tags":59,"related":61,"comments":221},"agar-properties-uses","Bacteriological Agar: Properties, Composition, and Uses in Microbiology","Bacteriological agar is the gelling agent used in virtually all solid culture media. Learn its properties, why it's preferred over gelatin, melting and solidification temperatures, and what happens when agar fails.",null,"Acharya Tankeshwar","2022-11-05","2026-07-24",false,"culture-media","Before agar, Robert Koch's laboratory used gelatin as the gelling agent for solid culture media. The problem: many bacteria produce gelatinase and liquefy the medium. More critically, gelatin melts at 37°C which is the optimal incubation temperature for most human pathogens. A medium that turns to liquid at body temperature is useless for isolation.\n\nAngelina Fanny Eilshemius Hesse, wife of Walther Hesse (a colleague of Koch), suggested the use of agar which was a gelling agent from seaweed she had used in cooking in 1881. Koch adopted it immediately. Agar does not melt until 100°C and does not resolidify until 40–45°C, allowing media to be poured at 50°C and solidifying reliably at incubation temperature. This single substitution made modern clinical bacteriology possible.\n\nAgar (agar agar) or bacteriological agar is a thermoreversible gelling agent extracted from the cell walls of smaller seaweeds (red algae). Agar is obtained from red algae belonging to the genera *Gracilaria, Ahnfeltia, **Gelidium*****,** and *Pterocladiella.*\n\nBacteriological agar has no taste or smell and is often added to food with other ingredients. About 90% of agar is used for food applications such as bakery bread, ice cream, meringue, fruit puddings, jams, and marmalade. In microbiology laboratories, agar is commonly used to solidify culture media.\n\n## Bacteriological Agar\n\nBacteriological agar is a hydrophilic colloidal substance made from cell wall components of *Gelidium* and *Rhodoyceae* (marine algae) species. Agar is used to solidifying culture media because of its high gelling strength; a setting temperature of 32-39°**C, and a melting temperature of 90-95**°**C. Low gelling temperature (34-36°C) allows the addition of heat-sensitive nutrients such as whole blood to be added safely at 45-50**°C with a minimum risk of heat damage.\n\n![Bacteriological Agar - Bacteriological agar from a commercial supplier](\u002Fblogs\u002FDehydrated-Culture-Media.png)Figure: Bacteriological agar from a commercial supplier\n\nMost agars used in bacteriological work produce a firm gel at an agar concentration of 1.5% w\u002Fv. At a concentration of 0.4-0.5% w\u002Fv, agar gives semisolid gel, which is used to make biochemical media and transport media such as  Amies medium.\n\nAs agar media are used to grow bacteria, “Bacto” agars must not contain trace metals and other materials that might inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi. The gels must be strong and have good clarity.\n\nBacteriological agar is obtained from **sea algae** at only a few harvesting sites and requires rigorous processing to remove naturally occurring pigments, salts, miscellaneous inhibitory substances, and bacterial spores. Manufacturers of bacteriological agar keep all processing details confidential. The increasing use of agar is pushing its cost, and also, there are shortages. So companies are searching for cheaper alternatives to agar to solidify culture media.\n\n## Key Properties of Bacteriological Agar\n\n| Property | Value | Significance |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Melting temperature | 96–100°C | Must be autoclaved to dissolve |\n| Solidification temperature | 40–45°C | Can be poured at 50°C without premature solidification |\n| Incubation stability | Solid at 37°C | Does not melt at bacteriological incubation temperatures |\n| Concentration in solid media | 1.5–2.0% | Standard; below 0.5% = semi-solid (motility media) |\n| Nutritional value | None | Agar itself provides no nutrients — only a scaffold |\n| Inhibitory substances | Low (bacteriological grade) | Technical grade agar contains impurities that inhibit organism growth |\n| Bacteriological vs technical grade | Must specify bacteriological grade | Technical grade agar used in food industry — inhibitory to bacteria |\n| pH effect | Agar solidifies poorly below pH 5 | Low pH media may require higher agar concentration |\n| Gelatinase degradation | Not degraded by most bacteria | Unlike gelatin — major advantage |\n\n## Usage History\n\nAngelina Fanny Hesse (1850-1934) was the first to propose agar use in [culture media.](\u002Ftypes-of-bacteriological-culture-medium\u002F) She is the wife of one of Robert Koch’s colleagues, Walther Hesse. Ironically, neither Lina nor Walter Hesse was given credit for using agar in microbiology.\n\nFanny Hesse suggested [Robert  Koch](\u002Frobert-koch-kochs-postulates\u002F) to add agar to his bacteriological media. The use of agar created a firm surface over which microorganisms could be spread very thinly, so thinly that some individual organisms were separated from all others. Robert Koch used agar to isolate *Mycobacterium tuberculosis*.\n\n## Chemical Nature\n\nAgar (also called agar-agar) is a mixture of polysaccharides whose basic monomer is galactose. Agar consists of two fractions, **agarose and agaropectin**. Agarose is a linear polysaccharide and the gel-forming component; agaropectin is a branched, nongelling component of agar.\n\nAgar is a creamy white powder soluble in hot water but insoluble in cold water.\n\n## Agarose\n\nAgarose is a neutral, long-chain polysaccharide formed by alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-alpha-L-galactopyranose residues joined by alpha-(1->3)- and beta-(1->4)-linkages. This electrically neutral polysaccharide is suitable for electrophoresis and [chromatography](\u002Fgel-filtration-chromatography\u002F).\n\n![Agarose - Backbone structure of agarose.](\u002Fblogs\u002FAgarbiose.png)Figure: Backbone structure of agarose.\n\n## Uses\n\nAgar is widely used in many industries due to its ability to form a gel. The large difference between gel-forming and melting temperatures gives agar its unique properties.\n\n1. Bacteriological agar is an indispensable ingredient in diagnostic labs and research projects, e.g., culture and AST, tissue culture, cell assays, etc. Due to the ease with which agar can be transported (dry, dissolved, and gelled), it is ubiquitous in the modern-day laboratory.  In the Microbiology lab, agar is the most commonly used growth medium for microorganisms. Agar media is essential for isolating and identifying microorganisms\u002Fpathogens from various samples.\n2. Agar is one of the most common basic media for [gel electrophoresis](\u002Felectrophoresis-principles-types-and-uses\u002F), gel bead chromatography, and size exclusion chromatography. Due to its porous 3D framework, agar is frequently used in **biomolecular separation and purification**.\n3. Agar has been fabricated in different forms (e.g., microspheres and films) to **encapsulate molecules for sustained-drug delivery** or immobilize proteins for tissue engineering. Due to the gelation property of agar, it is most often used as a hydrogel. **Other applications of Agar are**; emulsifier, carrier, lubricant, stabilizer, and laxative disintegrant in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.\n4. Applications in Food Industries \\\n   \\\n   Refined grades of agar are used in food applications, and agar is easier to use in food gels than many other substances. Common food applications of agar include puddings, custards, and soft candies. In Asian countries, **jellies** made from agar and natural fruit juices are very popular. Agar improves the texture of processed cheese and frozen desserts. In the Bakery industry, agar is used in icings and frostings because it is compatible with large amounts of sugar. Its products neither melt at high storage temperatures nor stick to the packaging material. Agar-agar serves as a preservative in food processing and is used in baked goods to inhibit staling. Agar is also used for the preparation of canned meat and fish products. It is also used in retorted meat products such as canned corned beef. Agar-agar is high in dietary fiber (80 g per 100 g). Agar is used in low-calorie dishes, as it can not be digested in the gastrointestinal tract.   Agar’s properties are similar to gelatin. It is a good substitute for animal-based gelatin in vegetarian foods. Agar is useful for the fermentation process.\n5. In the agricultural industry, agar is a neutral carrier for nutrients and growth substances. Seedling germination herbaceous plants from meristematic tissue use agar as a nutrient substance.\n6. Other uses of agar are; its usage in photographic emulsion, fermentation process, and making dental impressions, etc.\n\n## Alternatives\n\nApart from agar, media can be solidified by incorporating a gelling agent such as gelatin. Researches are underway to find newer and cost-effective alternatives to bacteriological agar.\n\nSome possible candidates are;  low-cost food-grade agar, cellulose produced by engineered bacteria, and fewer alternative gelling agents.\n\n## Key Exam Facts in One Table\n\n| Feature | Detail |\n| --- | --- |\n| Source | Polysaccharide extract from red algae (*Gelidium*, *Gracilaria*) |\n| Introduced by | Angelina Fanny Eilshemius Hesse (1881) — suggested to Koch's colleague |\n| Melting point | 96–100°C |\n| Solidification point | 40–45°C |\n| Standard concentration (solid) | 1.5–2.0% |\n| Semi-solid concentration | 0.1–0.5% (motility media, transport media) |\n| Advantage over gelatin | Does not melt at 37°C; not degraded by most bacteria |\n| Nutritional contribution | None |\n| Grade required | Bacteriological grade — technical grade contains inhibitory impurities |\n\n**References and further readings**\n\n1. Madigan MT, Bender KS, Buckley DH, Sattley WM, Stahl DA. Brock Biology of Microorganisms. 16th ed. Pearson; 2021.\n2. Zimbro MJ, Power DA, Miller SM, Wilson GE, Johnson JA (eds). Difco & BBL Manual: Manual of Microbiological Culture Media. 2nd ed. Becton, Dickinson and Company; 2009.\n3. Prescott LM, Harley JP, Klein DA. Microbiology. 7th ed. McGraw-Hill; 2008.\n4. Agar Wikipedia note: Hesse WA. Ueber Parasiten in der Luft. Mitt. Kaiserl. Gesundh. 1884;2:182. (Historical reference for Angelina Hesse's contribution.)",[50,53,56],{"question":51,"answer":52},"Why is agar preferred over gelatin as a solidifying agent in culture media?","Agar replaced gelatin in bacteriological culture media for three critical reasons: (1) Temperature stability — agar melts at 96-100°C but does not resolidify until 40-45°C, remaining solid at 37°C incubation temperature. Gelatin melts at 37°C, making it useless for culture at body temperature. (2) Resistance to bacterial degradation — most bacteria cannot break down agar, while many produce gelatinase that liquefies gelatin, destroying the solid medium. (3) Better solidification properties — agar produces a firmer, more transparent gel at lower concentrations than gelatin. The suggestion to use agar came from Angelina Fanny Eilshemius Hesse in 1881, and Robert Koch adopted it immediately, making modern solid culture media possible.",{"question":54,"answer":55},"What is the difference between bacteriological grade and technical grade agar?","Bacteriological grade agar is purified to remove inhibitory substances — heavy metals, sulphated polysaccharides, and other impurities that inhibit microbial growth or interfere with biochemical reactions. Technical grade agar (used in the food industry for gelling) retains these impurities and is inhibitory to many bacteria and fungi. Culture media preparation always requires bacteriological grade agar specifically. Using technical grade agar would produce media that appears normal visually but inhibits or kills the organisms it should be supporting — a subtle quality failure that could generate false-negative culture results.",{"question":57,"answer":58},"What agar concentration is used for different types of culture media?","Agar concentration determines the firmness of the medium: 1.5-2.0% agar produces standard solid media (blood agar, MacConkey agar, Mueller-Hinton agar) suitable for colony isolation and identification. Concentrations below 0.5% produce semi-solid media used for motility testing (SIM medium, motility agar) — firm enough to hold shape but soft enough for motile bacteria to migrate through. Concentrations of 0.1-0.3% produce soft agars used in some transport media. The agar concentration in a medium is a fixed quality parameter — varying it changes the medium's properties and can affect selectivity, differential reactions, and organism growth.",[60],"bacterial-culture-media",[62,93,124,153,190,199,207,214],{"slug":63,"title":64,"description":65,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":66,"lastUpdatedDate":67,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":68,"tags":92},"types-of-bacteriological-culture-medium","Bacterial Culture Media: Classification, Types, Uses","A complete guide to bacteriological culture media: classification by composition, consistency, and functional use, with examples of 35+ media, their selective agents, and clinical applications.","2010-07-24","2026-08-21",[69,72,75,78,81,84,87,90],{"question":70,"answer":71},"What is the difference between selective media and enrichment media?","Selective media are solid (agar-based) and allow direct colony isolation. Enrichment media are liquid (broth-based) and are used as a pre-enrichment step before plating, allowing the pathogen to multiply and increase in relative concentration. For example, selenite F broth enriches Salmonella before plating on XLD or SS agar.",{"question":73,"answer":74},"What is the difference between selective media and differential media?","Selective media suppress unwanted organisms while permitting target organisms to grow. Differential media allow multiple organisms to grow but distinguish them by colony color or reaction. Many media are both — MacConkey agar is selective (bile salts inhibit gram-positives) and differential (lactose fermenters produce pink colonies).",{"question":76,"answer":77},"What is the role of agar in culture media and why can most bacteria not digest it?","Agar is a polysaccharide from red seaweed that solidifies culture media. It melts at ~100°C and solidifies at 42-45°C, remaining solid at 37°C incubation temperature. Almost no bacteria produce enzymes capable of digesting agar, so the surface remains stable throughout incubation.",{"question":79,"answer":80},"What makes a bacterium fastidious and which media are used to grow fastidious bacteria?","Fastidious bacteria have complex nutritional requirements that cannot be met by simple media. They require specific growth factors like vitamins, blood factors, or serum. Examples include Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Haemophilus influenzae, Bordetella pertussis, and Legionella pneumophila. Enriched media such as blood agar, chocolate agar, BCYE agar, and Bordet-Gengou agar are used.",{"question":82,"answer":83},"What is the purpose of transport media and what do they contain?","Transport media preserve clinical specimens during transit to the laboratory. They maintain pathogen viability, prevent desiccation, and suppress overgrowth of commensal organisms. They are deliberately low in nutrients with a buffered salt solution and reducing agents. Examples include Stuart's medium, Amies medium, and Cary-Blair medium.",{"question":85,"answer":86},"What is the difference between alpha, beta, and gamma hemolysis on blood agar?","Alpha hemolysis produces a greenish discoloration (partial lysis) — seen with S. pneumoniae. Beta hemolysis produces a clear complete zone of lysis — seen with S. pyogenes and S. aureus. Gamma hemolysis produces no change in the medium — seen with Enterococcus faecalis.",{"question":88,"answer":89},"Why do some bacteria require anaerobic culture media?","Obligate anaerobes lack superoxide dismutase and catalase, making oxygen exposure lethal. Anaerobic media contain reducing agents (sodium thioglycollate, cysteine) to maintain low oxygen tension. Indicators like resazurin or methylene blue turn pink or blue when oxygen is present, alerting lab staff that conditions have been compromised.",{"question":91,"answer":91},"",[60],{"slug":94,"title":95,"description":96,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":97,"lastUpdatedDate":98,"draft":46,"category":99,"image":42,"faq":100,"tags":122},"robert-koch-kochs-postulates","Robert Koch and Koch's Postulates: Discoveries, Criteria, and Limitations","\u003Cp>Robert Koch, the father of bacteriology: his discoveries (anthrax, TB, cholera), his laboratory techniques, and Koch's postulates with their limitations and modern molecular version.\u003C\u002Fp>","2013-12-25","2026-08-26","general-microbiology",[101,104,107,110,113,116,119],{"question":102,"answer":103},"\u003Cp>Who was Robert Koch?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Robert Koch (1843–1910) was a German physician and microbiologist, one of the founders of modern bacteriology. He proved that specific bacteria cause anthrax, tuberculosis, and cholera, developed key laboratory techniques, and formulated Koch's postulates. He won the 1905 Nobel Prize for his tuberculosis work.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":105,"answer":106},"\u003Cp>What is Robert Koch the father of?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>He is most accurately called the father of bacteriology (and of medical microbiology), because he proved specific bacteria cause specific diseases and created the methods to study them. He shares the broader \"father of microbiology\" title with Louis Pasteur.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":108,"answer":109},"\u003Cp>What are Koch's postulates?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Four criteria for proving a microbe causes a disease: (1) the microbe is present in every case, (2) it can be isolated and grown in pure culture, (3) it reproduces the disease in a healthy host, and (4) it can be re-isolated from that host and matches the original.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":111,"answer":112},"\u003Cp>What diseases did Robert Koch discover the cause of?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Anthrax (1876, \u003Cem>Bacillus anthracis\u003C\u002Fem>), tuberculosis (1882, \u003Cem>Mycobacterium tuberculosis\u003C\u002Fem>), and cholera (1883, \u003Cem>Vibrio cholerae\u003C\u002Fem>). His anthrax work was the first proof that a specific bacterium causes a specific disease.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":114,"answer":115},"\u003Cp>Why did Robert Koch win the Nobel Prize?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>He received the 1905 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his investigations and discoveries concerning tuberculosis, including identifying its causative bacterium.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":117,"answer":118},"\u003Cp>What are the limitations of Koch's postulates?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Some microbes cannot be grown in culture (such as the syphilis and leprosy bacteria and viruses), some healthy people carry pathogens without disease, some diseases have multiple causes, deliberately infecting humans is unethical, and the postulates were not designed for viruses or prions.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":120,"answer":121},"\u003Cp>What are molecular Koch's postulates?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>A modern version proposed by Stanley Falkow in 1988 that links a specific virulence gene, rather than a whole organism, to the ability to cause disease. It works even for microbes that cannot be cultured.\u003C\u002Fp>",[123],"history-microbiology",{"slug":125,"title":126,"description":127,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":128,"createdDate":129,"lastUpdatedDate":130,"draft":46,"category":131,"image":42,"faq":132,"tags":151},"gel-filtration-chromatography","Gel Filtration Chromatography: Principle, Steps & Uses","\u003Cp>Gel filtration (size-exclusion) chromatography explained: how it separates molecules by size, why large molecules elute first, the gels used, and applications.\u003C\u002Fp>","Sushmita Baniya","2022-05-19","2026-08-18","lab-equipment",[133,136,139,142,145,148],{"question":134,"answer":135},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration chromatography in simple words?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>It is a way to separate molecules by size by passing them through a column of porous gel beads. Large molecules cannot enter the beads and come out first, while small molecules get delayed inside the beads and come out last.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":137,"answer":138},"\u003Cp>What elutes first in gel filtration chromatography?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The largest molecules elute first, because they are excluded from the pores of the beads and take the shortest path through the column.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":140,"answer":141},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration chromatography also known as?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), molecular sieve chromatography, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Gel permeation usually refers to separating polymers in organic solvents, while gel filtration usually refers to biological molecules in water.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":143,"answer":144},"\u003Cp>Which gels are used in gel filtration?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Common ones are Sephadex (cross-linked dextran), Sepharose (agarose), and Bio-Gel (polyacrylamide). The pore size of the gel decides the range of molecular sizes it can separate.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":146,"answer":147},"\u003Cp>What is gel filtration used for?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>Mainly for desalting or exchanging the buffer of a protein sample, for separating proteins by size, and for estimating the molecular weight of an unknown protein.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"question":149,"answer":150},"\u003Cp>Why is it called \"filtration\" if nothing is filtered out?\u003C\u002Fp>","\u003Cp>The name is historical. No molecule is actually removed; all of them pass through the column, but they emerge at different times according to size.\u003C\u002Fp>",[152],"chromatography",{"slug":154,"title":155,"description":156,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":157,"createdDate":158,"lastUpdatedDate":159,"draft":46,"category":131,"image":42,"faq":160,"tags":188},"electrophoresis-principles-types-and-uses","Electrophoresis: Principles, Types, and Uses","Electrophoresis separates charged molecules such as proteins and DNA by moving them through a gel in an electric field. Learn the principle, the factors that control mobility, the main types, and how serum protein electrophoresis detects multiple myeloma.","Srijana Khanal","2022-07-13","2026-08-24",[161,164,167,170,173,176,179,182,185],{"question":162,"answer":163},"What is the basic principle of electrophoresis?","Charged molecules placed in an electric field migrate toward the electrode of opposite charge. Negatively charged molecules (anions) move toward the positive anode, and positively charged molecules (cations) move toward the negative cathode. Each molecule travels at a speed set by its electrophoretic mobility, which depends on its net charge, its size and shape, and the viscosity and pore size of the medium. Molecules separate only if their mobilities differ.",{"question":165,"answer":166},"Why does DNA always move toward the anode?","DNA carries a phosphate backbone that remains negatively charged at any pH used in the laboratory. Because it is always an anion, it is always attracted to the positive anode. Its charge-to-mass ratio is also nearly constant regardless of fragment length, which is why DNA fragments separate essentially by size alone.",{"question":168,"answer":169},"Which way does a protein move in electrophoresis?","It depends on the buffer pH relative to the protein's isoelectric point (pI). Above its pI the protein is net negative and moves toward the anode. Below its pI it is net positive and moves toward the cathode. At exactly its pI, its net charge is zero and it does not migrate.",{"question":171,"answer":172},"Why is electrophoresis called an incomplete form of electrolysis?","In electrolysis, ions travel all the way to the electrode and undergo discharge there. In electrophoresis the electric field is switched off while the molecules are still in transit, so they never reach the electrode. What matters is not the reaction at the electrode but how far each molecule traveled, because that distance is the separation.",{"question":174,"answer":175},"What is the difference between zone and moving boundary electrophoresis?","In zone electrophoresis the sample is applied as a narrow zone on a supporting medium such as paper, cellulose acetate, or a gel, and components resolve into discrete bands. In moving boundary electrophoresis the separation occurs in free solution with no supporting medium, and the components appear as moving boundaries rather than distinct bands. The classical example of the latter is the Tiselius apparatus.",{"question":177,"answer":178},"What are the main factors affecting electrophoretic mobility?","Inherent factors include the net charge of the molecule, its charge density, its molecular weight, and its size and shape. External factors include the applied voltage, current and power, the pore size and viscosity of the supporting medium, the temperature, and the pH of the buffer, which determines the net charge on ampholytes such as proteins.",{"question":180,"answer":181},"How is electrophoresis used to diagnose multiple myeloma?","Serum protein electrophoresis separates serum proteins into albumin and the alpha, beta, and gamma globulin fractions. Normal gamma globulins are produced by thousands of plasma cell clones with slightly different mobilities, so they form a broad band. In multiple myeloma a single malignant clone produces one identical immunoglobulin, and these identical molecules migrate together to produce a sharp, narrow monoclonal (M) band in the gamma region.",{"question":183,"answer":184},"Does electrophoresis separate molecules by size or by charge?","By both, because mobility depends on the ratio of net charge to size. SDS-PAGE deliberately removes the charge variable by coating every protein with a uniform negative charge proportional to its length, so that separation depends on size alone. Native gels, in contrast, separate molecules on the basis of charge and size together.",{"question":186,"answer":187},"Why is a larger pore size not always better?","Larger pores impede migration less, so molecules travel faster, but small molecules pass through almost unhindered and are therefore poorly resolved. The gel concentration is chosen to match the size range of interest: a low-percentage gel resolves large fragments, and a high-percentage gel resolves small ones.",[189],"electrophoresis",{"slug":191,"title":192,"description":193,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":194,"lastUpdatedDate":195,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":196,"faq":197,"tags":198},"deoxycholate-citrate-agar-dca-preparation-uses-colony","Deoxycholate Citrate Agar (DCA): Composition, Principle, Uses, and Colony Characteristics","\u003Cp>Deoxycholate Citrate Agar (DCA) is a selective and differential medium for isolating \u003Cem>Salmonella \u003C\u002Fem>and \u003Cem>Shigella \u003C\u002Fem>from stool. Learn its three-layer selectivity mechanism, colony morphology including H₂S producing \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem>, and how it compares to SS agar and XLD agar.\u003C\u002Fp>","2018-11-30","2026-08-14","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fblogs\u002Fsalmonella-in-deoxycholacte-citrate-agar-microbeonline.png",[],[60],{"slug":200,"title":201,"description":202,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":203,"createdDate":204,"lastUpdatedDate":195,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":205,"tags":206},"bismuth-sulfite-agar-composition-preparation-uses-and-colony-morphology","Bismuth Sulfite Agar (BS Agar): Composition, Principle, Uses, and Colony Morphology","\u003Cp>Bismuth Sulfite Agar is the most sensitive medium for isolating \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> Typhi from stool. Learn its bismuth sulfite mechanism, characteristic black rabbit-eye colonies with metallic sheen, 2-day shelf life limitation, and how it compares to XLD and HE agar.\u003C\u002Fp>","Nisha Rijal","2018-10-01",[],[60],{"slug":208,"title":209,"description":210,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":211,"lastUpdatedDate":195,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":212,"tags":213},"salmonella-shigella-ss-agar-composition-principle-procedure-results","Salmonella-Shigella (SS) Agar: Composition, Principle, Colony Characteristics, and Limitations","\u003Cp>SS agar is a highly selective medium for \u003Cem>Salmonella\u003C\u002Fem> isolation from stool but despite its name, it inhibits most \u003Cem>Shigella\u003C\u002Fem> strains. Learn its principle, brilliant green mechanism, colony morphology, and when to use XLD or DCA instead.\u003C\u002Fp>","2016-09-06",[],[60],{"slug":215,"title":216,"description":217,"seoTitle":42,"seoDescription":42,"author":43,"createdDate":218,"lastUpdatedDate":195,"draft":46,"category":47,"image":42,"faq":219,"tags":220},"nutrient-agar-composition-preparation-uses","Nutrient Agar: Composition, Preparation, and Why It's Still Used Even Though TSA Replaced It Clinically","The original general-purpose culture medium nearly every richer medium on this site is built from, why clinical labs mostly moved on to tryptic soy agar, and where nutrient agar is still the right choice today.","2016-03-12",[],[60],{"enabled":222,"threads":223,"total":224},true,[],0,[226,232,239,245,251,256,262,267,272,275,281],{"slug":227,"name":43,"description":228,"image":229,"body":230,"postCount":231},"acharya-tankeshwar","Editor-in-chief","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Ftankeshwar-acharya-author-microbeonline.jpg","***Tankeshwar Acharya, MSc (Medical Microbiology)***\n\n*Tankeshwar Acharya is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Microbiology at Patan Academy of Health Sciences (PAHS), Nepal, where he has been teaching and practicing clinical microbiology for over 14 years. He is the founder of Microbe Online, one of the leading free microbiology education resources on the web, covering bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, immunology, and clinical laboratory diagnostics written from direct experience in both the classroom and the diagnostic laboratory.*",480,{"slug":233,"name":234,"description":235,"image":236,"body":237,"postCount":238},"ashma-shrestha","Ashma Shrestha","SEO Copywriter and Science Communicator\nKathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fashma-shrestha.png","Ashma Shrestha holds a Master of Science in Medical Microbiology from the Institute of Science and Technology (IOST), Tribhuvan University, Nepal, where she developed a strong foundation in virology, molecular biology, and diagnostic microbiology.\n\nShe now works as an SEO Copywriter at Resolution Digital, where she combines her scientific training with research-driven content strategy. She is certified in Google Analytics and Google Business Profile (GBP), and brings a data-informed approach to science communication writing content that is not only accurate but structured to reach and serve the students who need it most.\n\nAt microbeonline, Ashma contributes articles primarily in virology and molecular biology, areas she finds most compelling for their mechanistic depth and their growing clinical relevance. Her writing reflects the same standard the site is built on: factual rigor, clear explanation of the *why* behind microbiology concepts, and content that helps students move from memorization to genuine understanding.\n\nShe is passionate about making complex microbiological concepts accessible without sacrificing accuracy; a skill that sits at the intersection of her scientific training and her professional work in content and SEO.",79,{"slug":240,"name":128,"description":241,"image":242,"body":243,"postCount":244},"sushmita-baniya","Author \u002F Contributor","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsushmita-baniya-1.png","Sushmita Baniya holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from Tribhuvan University (National College), with a research focus in Genetics and Molecular Biology. She is actively involved in teaching and research in the field of microbiology.",26,{"slug":246,"name":247,"description":241,"image":248,"body":249,"postCount":250},"samikshya-acharya","Samikshya Acharya","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsamikshya-acharya.jpeg","Samikshya Sharma completed her postgraduate studies in Medical Microbiology at the Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. She contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making foundational and clinical microbiology concepts clear and useful for students in medical, laboratory science, and allied health programs.",20,{"slug":252,"name":253,"description":241,"image":42,"body":254,"postCount":255},"alisha-tripathi","Alisha Tripathi","Alisha Tripathi holds an M.Sc. in Medical Microbiology from National College, Tribhuvan University. With over a year of teaching experience, her academic interests span Molecular Biology, Immunology, and Genetics.",6,{"slug":257,"name":258,"description":259,"image":42,"body":260,"postCount":261},"aastha-shrestha","Aastha Shrestha"," Author \u002F Contributor","Aastha Shrestha is a Biotechnology graduate with an M.Sc. from National College, Tribhuvan University. Her academic interests center on Molecular Biology and Immunology; two fields that are increasingly converging in modern diagnostic and clinical microbiology. \n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline with the goal of making complex concepts in these areas approachable and exam-relevant for students across medical, biotechnology, and laboratory science programs.",9,{"slug":263,"name":264,"description":265,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"guest-author","Guest Author","Guest Author \u002F Contributor",1,{"slug":268,"name":157,"description":241,"image":269,"body":270,"postCount":271},"srijana-khanal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fsrijana-khanal-1.png","Srijana Khanal is a microbiology educator with nearly a decade of teaching experience, including her role as faculty in the Microbiology Department at National College, NIST. \n\nHer time in the classroom has given her a clear sense of where students struggle and what explanations actually work, a perspective that directly shapes how she writes.\n\nHer academic interests span Immunology, Genetics, Basic Sciences, and Research Methodology, and she brings the same rigor to her writing that she brought to teaching. Alongside academic writing, she has a passion for creative writing -- an instinct that shows in her ability to make dense scientific material readable without sacrificing accuracy.\n\nShe contributes to Microbeonline to extend her teaching reach beyond the classroom, helping medical and laboratory science students across the region build a stronger foundation in microbiology.",15,{"slug":273,"name":274,"description":265,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"dr-poonam-acharya","Dr. Poonam Acharya",{"slug":276,"name":203,"description":277,"image":278,"body":279,"postCount":280},"nisha-rijal","Microbiologist and AMR Specialist Kathmandu, Nepal","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fnisha-rijal-1.png","Nisha Rijal is a microbiologist with nearly 15 years of frontline diagnostic and surveillance experience at the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL), national reference laboratory under the Department of Health Services, Nepal. She currently works as an AMR Support Officer at the World Health Organization (WHO), Nepal, where her work focuses on strengthening antimicrobial resistance surveillance systems and translating AMR data into actionable public health response.\n\nHer research, published in peer-reviewed journals and cited over 220 times, spans some of the most clinically significant infectious disease challenges in Nepal and South Asia: antimicrobial resistance trends in *Vibrio cholerae* across an 11-year national surveillance dataset, sero-epidemiology of scrub typhus in patients with acute febrile illness, lower respiratory tract infections in HIV-positive patients, and gonococcal resistance surveillance. She was a contributor to Nepal's National Antimicrobial Resistance Containment Action Plan, a foundational policy document for AMR governance in Nepal. You can find list of [Nisha Rijal's article here in Google Scholar.](https:\u002F\u002Fscholar.google.com\u002Fcitations?user=N-Ruq54AAAAJ&hl=en)\n\nThis depth of experience is visible in her writing at Microbeonline. Her 53 published articles cover bacteriology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, and laboratory techniques, and are consistently among the most detailed and clinically grounded content on the site. She brings to every article the same standard that national reference laboratory work demands: methodological precision, awareness of real diagnostic constraints, and an understanding of what results actually mean for patient care in resource-limited settings.\n\nHer areas of particular expertise include antimicrobial susceptibility testing and resistance mechanism detection, quality assurance in clinical microbiology, and laboratory-based infectious disease surveillance.\n\n---\n\n*Nisha Rijal contributes to Microbeonline in a personal capacity. Her views and writing do not represent the positions of the World Health Organization or any other institution.*",54,{"slug":282,"name":283,"description":284,"image":285,"body":286,"postCount":266},"padma-shrestha","Padma Shrestha","Author","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Fauthors\u002Fpadma-shrestha.png","Padma Shrestha is from Kathmandu, Nepal. She has completed Masters degree in Medical microbiology from Tribhuvan University. She has great interest in Microbiology and Molecular Biology.",[288,295,301,306,311,316,320,324,328,333,337,342,346,351,356,360,364,367,371,376,380,384,388,393,397,401,405,409,414,419,423,427,431,435,439,443,447,451,455,459,463,467,471,475,479,483,487,491,496,500,504,508,512,516,520,524,528,532,536,540,544,548,552,556,560,564,568,572,575,579,582,585,588,591,594,597,600,603,606,609,612,615,618],{"slug":289,"name":290,"description":291,"image":292,"body":293,"postCount":294},"gram-negative-cocci","Gram-Negative Cocci and Coccobacilli","Neisseria, Moraxella, Haemophilus and related gram-negative coccal organisms","https:\u002F\u002Fassets.microbeonline.com\u002Ftags\u002Fgram-negative-cocci.png","# Gram Negative Cocci\n\nNeisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Moraxella catarrhalis, and other Neisseria spp. are clinically relevant gram-negative cocci.\n\nN. gonorrhoeae is the leading cause of sexually transmitted disease whereas N. meningitides is a leading cause of fatal bacterial meningitis.",14,{"slug":296,"name":297,"description":298,"image":42,"body":299,"postCount":300},"microscopy","Microscopy","Microscope types, components, and microscopy techniques","These are list of blog posts related to microscopy. ",12,{"slug":302,"name":303,"description":304,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":305},"gram-positive-cocci","Gram-Positive Cocci","Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Micrococcus — organisms, diseases, and identification tests",11,{"slug":307,"name":308,"description":309,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"gram-negative-rods","Gram-Negative Rods (Other than Enterobacteriaceae)","\u003Cp>Gram negative rods other than members of Enterobacteriaceae family such as  Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter and related organisms\u003C\u002Fp>",5,{"slug":312,"name":313,"description":314,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"gram-positive-rods","Gram-Positive Rods","Bacillus, Clostridium, Listeria, Corynebacterium, Actinomyces and related organisms",8,{"slug":317,"name":318,"description":319,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":305},"mycobacteria","Mycobacteria","Mycobacterium tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacteria, and acid-fast organism diagnosis",{"slug":321,"name":322,"description":323,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":300},"anaerobic-bacteriology","Anaerobic Bacteriology","Anaerobic organisms, anaerobic culture methods, and anaerobic infection diagnosis",{"slug":325,"name":326,"description":327,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":300},"enterobacteriaceae","Enterobacteriaceae","Identification, differentiation, and clinical significance of Enterobacteriaceae family members",{"slug":329,"name":330,"description":331,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"spirochetes","Spirochetes","Treponema, Leptospira, Borrelia and spirochetal infections",7,{"slug":334,"name":335,"description":336,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":294},"food-microbiology","Food Microbiology","Food-borne pathogens, food safety, spoilage, and preservation",{"slug":338,"name":339,"description":340,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"antimicrobial-susceptibility-testing","Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing","Methods for testing antibiotic susceptibility in clinical microbiology",21,{"slug":343,"name":344,"description":345,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":294},"antimicrobials-moa-amr","Antimicrobials (MOA & AMR)","Mechanisms, detection, and clinical significance of antimicrobial resistance",{"slug":347,"name":348,"description":349,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":350},"sterilization-disinfection","Sterilization and Disinfection","Methods of sterilization and disinfection in healthcare and laboratory settings",10,{"slug":352,"name":353,"description":354,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":355},"specimen-collection-transport","Specimen Collection and Transport","Collection, handling, and transport of clinical specimens for microbiological testing",27,{"slug":357,"name":358,"description":359,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"bacterial-structure-physiology","Bacterial Structure and Physiology","Bacterial cell structure, growth, physiology, and environmental factors affecting growth",{"slug":361,"name":362,"description":42,"image":42,"body":363,"postCount":255},"horizontal-gene-transfer","Horizontal Gene Transfer","Articles related to **Horizontal Gene Transfer**",{"slug":152,"name":365,"description":42,"image":42,"body":366,"postCount":350},"Chromatography","Information about chromatographic techniques.",{"slug":189,"name":368,"description":369,"image":42,"body":370,"postCount":332},"Electrophoresis","Information about Electrophoresis Techniques ","Detailed information  about Electrophoresis Techniques ",{"slug":372,"name":373,"description":374,"image":42,"body":375,"postCount":255},"pcr-techniques","PCR Techniques","Information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ","More detailed information about various types of Polymerase Chain Reaction Techniques ",{"slug":377,"name":378,"description":379,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"bacteriophage","Bacteriophage","Description about Bacteriophage.",{"slug":381,"name":382,"description":383,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"malaria","Malaria","It is the collections of articles regarding malarial disease. ",{"slug":385,"name":386,"description":387,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"anaerobic-culture-techniques","Anaerobic Culture Techniques","Posts related with Anaerobic Culture Techniques.",{"slug":389,"name":390,"description":391,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":392},"immunoassays","Immunoassays","You will get information about all the diagnostic tests that rely on the specific binding between an antigen and an antibody to detect or quantify a substance.",19,{"slug":394,"name":395,"description":396,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"biosafety-levels","Biosafety levels ","Articles related to Biosafety Levels",{"slug":398,"name":399,"description":400,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"environmental-factors","Environmental Factors ","In this case we are talking about growth requirements of microorganisms with deep dive in environmental factors that affect the growth. ",{"slug":402,"name":403,"description":404,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"pipette","Pipette","Posts related with Pipette. ",{"slug":406,"name":407,"description":408,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"bacteriology-mcqs","Bacteriology MCQs","This sections lists MCQs in Bacteriology.",{"slug":410,"name":411,"description":412,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":413},"parasitology-mcqs","Parasitology MCQs","This section lists MCQs in Parasitology.",2,{"slug":415,"name":416,"description":417,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"virology-mcqs","Virology MCQs","This is the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in Virology.",4,{"slug":420,"name":421,"description":422,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"mcqs-in-microbiology","MCQs in Microbiology","This section lists the collections of Multiple Choice Questions in General Microbiology Topics. ",{"slug":424,"name":425,"description":426,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"immunology-mcqs","Immunology MCQs","In this section; we are posting collections of Multiple Choice Questions about Immunology. ",{"slug":428,"name":429,"description":430,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":350},"microbial-curiosities","Microbial Curiosities","In this clusters, we are posting interesting and unique information about Microorganisms. ",{"slug":60,"name":432,"description":433,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":434},"Bacterial Culture Media","Posts related to Bacterial Culture Media. ",23,{"slug":436,"name":437,"description":438,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"fungal-culture-media","Fungal Culture Media","Posts related to Fungal Culture Media.",{"slug":440,"name":441,"description":442,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"motility-test","Motility Test","This lists the procedure regarding various tests methods for bacterial motility.",{"slug":444,"name":445,"description":446,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":350},"bacterial-enumeration","Bacterial enumeration","These posts are related to isolation and enumeration of bacteria. ",{"slug":448,"name":449,"description":450,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":413},"gram-positive-coccobacillus","Gram-positive coccobacillus","List of Gram Positive Coccobacilli",{"slug":452,"name":453,"description":454,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"dimorphic-fungi","Dimorphic Fungi","This is about various dimorphic fungi. ",{"slug":456,"name":457,"description":458,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"bacterial-classification","Bacterial Classification","These posts are related with various approaches used for the classification of Bacteria. ",{"slug":460,"name":461,"description":462,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"immunofluorescence","Immunofluorescence ","Various Tests related to Immunofluorescence ",{"slug":464,"name":465,"description":466,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":261},"antibody-mediated-immunity","Antibody-mediated Immunity","This clusters links the articles that are sharing insights about Antibody-mediated immunity. ",{"slug":468,"name":469,"description":470,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"hypersensitivity","Hypersensitivity","Articles related to Hypersensitivity.",{"slug":472,"name":473,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":474},"haemophilus","Haemophilus",3,{"slug":476,"name":477,"description":478,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"sexually-transmitted-infections-stis","Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)","This is the clusters of infections that are transmitted sexually. ",{"slug":480,"name":481,"description":482,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":300},"adaptive-immunity","Adaptive Immunity","Blog posts related to B Cell Immunity and T Cell Immunity.",{"slug":484,"name":485,"description":486,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":294},"fungal-diagnostics","Fungal Diagnostics","Various methods used for the Diagnosis of Fungal Infections. ",{"slug":488,"name":489,"description":490,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"laboratory-storage-and-preservation","Laboratory Storage and Preservation","Articles about Laboratory Storage of Antimicrobial Disk, Test organisms and Equipment used for this process. ",{"slug":492,"name":493,"description":494,"image":42,"body":495,"postCount":255},"laboratory-heating-equipment","Laboratory Heating Equipment","A guide to laboratory heating equipment, including hot plates, water baths, Bunsen burners, incubators, and dry baths, and how to choose the right one for each task.","Laboratory heating equipment covers the instruments that warm, melt, incubate, or sterilize samples and media in a microbiology laboratory. Each one delivers heat differently. \n\nA hot plate gives high, direct, dry heat; a water bath gives gentle, even, wet heat up to about 100°C; a Bunsen burner gives an open flame for rapid, very high heat; an incubator holds cultures at a steady temperature over hours or days; and a dry bath heats small tubes without water. Choosing the right one depends on the temperature you need, how precise it must be, and whether the sample can tolerate direct or open-flame heat.\n\nThe articles below cover each piece of heating equipment in detail, including its parts, working principle, uses, and the mistakes that most often go wrong at the bench.",{"slug":497,"name":498,"description":499,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":261},"laboratory-glassware","Laboratory Glassware","Posts about Laboratory Glassware. ",{"slug":501,"name":502,"description":503,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"helminths","Helminths","In this section, we are covering properties, life cycle, pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of Helminths\u002FHelminthic infestations. ",{"slug":505,"name":506,"description":507,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"protozoan-parasite","Protozoan Parasite","In this cluster, we are covering protozoan parasites. ",{"slug":509,"name":510,"description":511,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"tests-for-gram-positive-cocci","Biochemical Tests for Gram Positive Cocci","This is the lists of Biochemical Tests that are used for Gram Positive Cocci. ",{"slug":513,"name":514,"description":515,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":350},"bacterial-staining-technique","Bacterial Staining Technique","Lists of various staining techniques that are used to stain bacteria. ",{"slug":517,"name":518,"description":519,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":341},"enzyme-tests","Enzyme Tests","\u003Cp>Various Biochemical Test that are based on enzymatic activity of the microorganisms. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":521,"name":522,"description":523,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":305},"carbohydrate-utilization","Carbohydrate Utilization","\u003Cp>Various biochemical tests which are related to Carbohydrate fermentation or Utilization\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":525,"name":526,"description":527,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"susceptibility-based-id","Susceptibility-based ID","\u003Cp>These are susceptibility based identification test such as optochin sensitivity, bacitracin sensitivity etc. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":529,"name":530,"description":531,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"microbial-metabolism","Microbial Metabolism","\u003Cp>Tests about Microbial Metabolism. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":533,"name":534,"description":535,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"substrate-utilization","Substrate Utilization","\u003Cp>The test in which a non-sugar carbon\u002Fnitrogen source is used or degraded (citrate, malonate, decarboxylases, indole, PAD).\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":537,"name":538,"description":539,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":474},"atypical-pneumonia","Atypical Pneumonia","\u003Cp>Organisms responsible for Atypical Pneumonia. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":541,"name":542,"description":543,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"antigen","Antigen","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Antigens.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":545,"name":546,"description":547,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"innate-immunity","Innate Immunity","\u003Cp>Articles related to Innate Immunity. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":549,"name":550,"description":551,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"respiratory-tract-infection","Respiratory Tract Infection","\u003Cp>In this cluster, you can see various etiological agents that causes respiratory tract infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":553,"name":554,"description":555,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"torch-infection","TORCH Infection","\u003Cp>In this section; you can find articles related with TOCH infection. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":557,"name":558,"description":559,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":315},"microbiology-for-beginners","Microbiology for Beginners","\u003Cp>These articles are very basic articles, which will share general concepts in Microbiology. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":561,"name":562,"description":563,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"dna-replication","DNA Replication","\u003Cp>Articles related to DNA and Replication of DNA. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":565,"name":566,"description":567,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"genetic-code","Genetic Code","\u003Cp>Articles related to Genetic Code.\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":569,"name":570,"description":571,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":332},"molecular-technique","Molecular Technique","\u003Cp>Posts related to Molecular Techniques. \u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":573,"name":574,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":266},"colorimetric-assay","Colorimetric Assay ",{"slug":576,"name":577,"description":578,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"pharmaceutical-microbiology","Pharmaceutical Microbiology","\u003Cp>Various articles related to Pharmaceutical Microbiology\u003C\u002Fp>",{"slug":580,"name":581,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":474},"blood-and-immune-cells","Blood and Immune Cells",{"slug":583,"name":584,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"host-pathogen-interaction","Host Pathogen Interaction",{"slug":586,"name":587,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"blood-culture","Blood Culture",{"slug":589,"name":590,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"environmental-microbiology","Environmental microbiology ",{"slug":592,"name":593,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":255},"copromicroscopic-technique","Copromicroscopic Technique",{"slug":595,"name":596,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":474},"quality-control","Quality Control",{"slug":598,"name":599,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"dermatophytes","Dermatophytes",{"slug":601,"name":602,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":474},"viral-hemorrhagic-fevers","Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers",{"slug":604,"name":605,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"h2s-production","H2S Production",{"slug":607,"name":608,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":413},"water-quality-testing","Water Quality Testing",{"slug":610,"name":611,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":310},"virology-basics","Virology basics",{"slug":613,"name":614,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"typing-methods","Typing Methods",{"slug":616,"name":617,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":474},"blotting-technique","Blotting Technique",{"slug":123,"name":619,"description":42,"image":42,"body":42,"postCount":418},"History of Microbiology"]